Wild Animals Damages to Agrarian Economy

Introduction:

Wild animal-human conflicts have started since beginning of human era from Adam and Eve. This conflict of wilderness made man to hide in caves and he was called as "Cave man". Slowly, with his advancement it is he who invented Axe and other weapon in stone and iron ages to frighten the wild animals, initially. Later on he hunted them to save himself. This feeling of uncertainty and fear of wild animals and wilderness reduced with the invention of fire. He made sharp weapons of bones and iron. These initial weapons were the beginning of this conflict, Animal human conflict.

Thirty thousand years ago, the human population rose to 6 million. They were still hunters. With the invention of fire, he set fire a vast majority of sanctuaries, which scared wild life and they migrated from his neighborhood. Many forests, hills and difficult terrains were still beyond the reach of man three thousand years before, although human population has increased to 60 million. Man has already started primitive agriculture. He had made his terrains and wild life scared by him left his close habitats and searched for fresh abodes. Man by now had lust for fur, horns, ornaments and other forest resources. He invented many means to frighten whole wild life. He became a "Danger "not only for wild animals but for his own species, environment and eco-biodiversity.

Three hundred years ago he industrialized crop production and produced enough food, for nearly 600 million people. This continued and from 30 year now he is feeding 6000 million people. Today we have a global food security for 7.5 billion. Human food security gains resulted in reduction of all other wild species, thus, the origin of wild- life- human conflict is the lust of man for more food, more luxury or sometimes fun for hunting or fur. This reduced wild life reserves and now a open conflict came into existence.

Many man-wild life conflicts have been reported from Gir forests of Gujarat, Rajaji National Park in UP and many other states where forest lands became cultivable lands. Elephants, wild boars, monkeys, squirrels, deer , birds like crows, parakeets, wild dogs, jackals, gaur, sambur, langure, fowls, pea cocks, neilgai, Hippos, biats, blackbirds, rodents, wild pigs, feral species, primates, beetles, foxes, pigeons, feral hogs and a variety of other species damage crops. The carnivores even attack human too. These attacks are for search of food or their loss of habitat. Many such accidents came to be known in Jammu and Kashmir. The bear leopod and other wild animals are reducing in number. Their habitats used by human.

The human causalities are due to carnivorous species, but herbivores inflict economic and human losses too. The crop damages by wild life has been the new threat to agricultural productivity throughout the world. This also concerns us in Asia and India. This review is aimed to find out:

1. Extent of damage to crops.
2. Nature of crop damage
3. Ways and means to prevent these losses.
4. A strategic planning to drive a line between wildlife conservation and farm economics especially in India.

Executive Abstracts and Strategic elementaries: [EASE]

1. Importance
Species causing crop damages ranges from elephant’s wild birds, monkeys, squirrels, deer, parakeet, wild dogs, foxes, deer and many others like Neilgai. On an average this damage to crops by wild animals amounts to U$ 961 per hectare. It is much more than an Indian Farmer earns from a hacter annually. Therefore, by these estimates, the damages are spectacular and economically important.

2. Human Elephant conflicts (HEC)

i) Economic Losses:
Among elephants crop raiding is common. The crops near their home ranges are damaged more. Elephants damaging crops had twice big ranges than those who did not damage the crops. Thus, more proximity of the crops near their ranges are prone to crops damages. Train accidents instigate elephants more to crop or human damages. Indonesia saw more frequent raids of elephants on crops. Human elephant conflict (HEC) is frequent and poses serious challenges in Africa.

Both male groups and family group attacks have been observed. HEC losses in West Bengal were worth 3.2 croses of Rupees. This damage occurred in 3368sq kms.radius. The numerical number of elephants was 62 only. Assam observes damages to the woodcutters by elephants Asian wild Elephants raid and damage crops in herds of 10-13 individuals or big herds comprising 50-74 elephants. In Darjeeling district alone over an area of 200 kms. East to west, in last two decades 277 houses were demolished by elephants, killing 66 people in 5 districts. As a result of this conflict 23 elephants lost their lives. In 2001, economic loss of the order of US fifty thousand dollars was estimated to be inflicted by elephants. This scenario necessitates comprehensive measures to be taken to lessen these damage. The review of the measures, around the world suggest following few studies to be undertaken and resultant measures to be applied to lessen these damages.

ii) Mitigation of losses:
Methods developed and used to mitigate crop damages by elephants consisted of frightening of animals by drum beating, firegracks or even air gun fires. Guarding the crops by fences or even using electric fencing or raising poles and wiring may be effective. Chemical based deterrents, and electric fencing have been found to reduce crop damages. High voltage electric fencing using energizers in west have prevented wild animals damaging crop but this preposition may not be applicable in areas where even habitations do not have access to electricity. However, this method may act as a temporary boundary separating wild and domestic habitats.

This could prevent intrusions from sly vatic to domestic foci. Guarding fields, digging trenches, modifying cropping patterns have a possibility of reducing man elephant conflicts or Human elephant conflicts. A 30% open space between two habitats may help to avoid HEC. This means a distance to be maintained between cropping fields and elephant habitates. A proper investigation on these lines is needed. A grid based geographical information system (GIS) with a 25Km2 resolution may help to have cost effective data source to analyze these situations. There is urgent need of identifying spatial predictors of HEC. On the basis of this study one can suggest or plan mitigation strategies, early warnings of attacks, use of barriers and deterrents. The utility of the methods could be assessed for land use and livelihood strategies to limit HEC.

3. Dear-Nilgai Damages

A survey of 2500 farms in UK revealed that 69% (n=192) cereal crops were damaged by deer. This damage costed £500 per annum per farm. Damages varied with deer density. In USA too deer damages comprised of crop loss, landscape damages, car accidents and property damages. Nilgai damages alongwith deer damages are common in India too. Tree cover of Acacia in the area is generally used as shelter by Nilgai. We have encountered huge crop damage in Mathura (CIRG) and nearby area by Nilgai visits. Grazing and browsing of Nilgai inflict losses on farms. This is regarded as a mammalian crop threat by the farmers. This behaviour of their inflict ozone injury to the young sapling, so precious for the growth of trees in Indian semi-arid farms.

Corn damages by deer in USA amounts to 6.6.% per hectare. In an area where a farmer owned 125 hectare on an average 55 hectares were used to sow corn. There is a 6.6% loss of the product which is a huge economic loss. Similar damages by deer in Ontario, Canada, Portugal, Japan, South America and other parts of the world have been reviewed. In Virginia too a study involving 1506 agricultural producer farmers revealed 58% of them experiencing deer damages. Ways and means to prevent such attacks on crops have been reviewed. Most of the possible measures to be adopted are similar to these described for elephants (HEC).

4. Other Mammal and bird damages

Monkey damages maize, sweet potato and other crops. It is suggested to reduce or change cropping pattern or alternating with non-agricultural activities near location of monkey habitats. Various methods are reviewed. Bat damage, Hygo crop damages in Japan, Grape wine damages by bats in Andra Pradesh, India have been studied. Crop economic loss assessment has been reviewed in these pages. Clover rather than grass can reduce wild mammal damages. Alley cropping of black walnuts helped to save soyabean and maize crop damages. Pesticide damages wildlife and minimize their attacks, enclosures and other electric fencing help to avoid such damage. Can one use harmful means to save crops, need a suitable strategy to preserve ecology and biodiversity. Both crops and wild animals need security and conservation. A management strategy is needed to safeguard human and wildlife equally. A policy framework is envisaged.

Blackbird crop damage in USA amounts to 5-8 million dollars. A considerable sum of crores of rupees have been estimated to be damages in the form of crop, human and property losses by wild animals, birds and other rodents in India. Many measures to reduce these losses are needed and have been reviewed.

Review

1. Wild animals damaging crops
To elephants wild boar, porcupine, rheus macaque (Macaca mulatta), hoary-bellied squirrel, barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), red-breasted parakeet (Psittacula alexandri), and wild dog are wild animals damaging crops.
Methods developed and being used to mitigate man-wildlife conflict include, frightening the animals; guarding the crops; and using some sort of scarecrow and traps (Miah et al 2001).

Accurate estimation of crop damage by wildlife (raccoons, white-tailed deer, and coyotes) often requires labour-intensive sampling procedure. Variable area transect (VAT) sampling has been identified as a potential labour-saving alternative to quadrat sampling ( Engerman et al 2002).

2. Wild life Human conflicts
Agricultural landowners suffer in the form of damage to crops, livestock, and other property. Some wildlife agencies maintained abatement and compensation programmes. A model of deer-inflicted crop damage used to facilitate agency decisions regarding deer densities and distribution, abatement use, and to forecast compensation. The model is applied to field-level compensation claims in Wisconsin, USA. The results are consistent with theory, ( Yoder J, 2002).

3. Crop Economic loss due to wild life
People’s perceptions were discerned through participatory discussions covering 419 households distributed in 10 villages in the buffer zone. Traditional uncodified rights of local people were substantially reduced through policy interventions set in since 1860s. Local people as well as tourists have been excluded from the core zone covering an area of 625 km2 since 1982. Deterioration of rural economy due to damage to crop and livestock by wildlife and, termination of opportunities of income from wild medicinal plant resources and tourism in the core zone were the key negative impacts of conservation policy felt by more than 90% of respondents.

Mean annual economic loss per household was estimated as Rs.1285, Rs. 1195 and Rs.156 due to damage caused by wildlife to food crops, fruit trees and beehives, respectively, Rs. 1587 due to ban on collection of wild medicinal plants for marketing and Rs.7904 due to ban on tourism in the core zone. The Reserve authority granted compensation for livestock killed by wildlife but it was hardly 5% of the market value of killed livestock as assessed by the people. People did not appreciate much the present benefits from the reserve management in the form of wages for carrying out afforestation work, partial compensation for livestock depredation and availability of solar power devices, wool, and spinning devices.

Approximately 95% respondents identified empowerment of local people in respect of realizing income from timber from dead/diseased trees in community forests, income from medicinal plants in buffer zone and opening of the core zone for tourism as potential development options. Improvement in rural economy, the prime concern of local people, has not received as much attention as legal enforcement of protection by the reserve management. There is a need for developing policies and management actions that serve the economic interests of local people together with enhancement of environment conservation goal (Maikhuri et al 2001).

4. Crop selection:
Damage was less (34%) in experimental carrot as multiple crop than carrots as only crop planted (62% damage). Staggered plantings of canola, which continuously produced flowers, was the most effective lure crop of the green manure crops we tested. Carrot producers should use electric fences or 2.4-m woven wire fences, perhaps combined with staggered canola plantings, to reduce carrot depredations ( Schwab et al 2001).

The colver, rather than fertilized grass, is more effective cover crop on AFAs, against damage by migratory geese. The sward should be managed to encourage clover growth, which would probably involve frequent cutting but no fertilizer. Further research is needed on clover replenishment rate over the winter season and possible benefits of clover leys to other wild life (McKay et al 2001). Alley cropping of black walnuts and percent with maize and soyabean rotations may avoid will animal damages. Tree –crop ratio of 1:10 may help( Godsey, 2000).

5. Elephan- human conflicts:
Conflicts between elephants (Elephas maximus) and human occur in Rajaji National Park (RNP), Uttar Pradesh, one of eleven reserves designated in India, to conserve Asian elephants. Elephant-human. The conflicts in RNP from 1996 to 1999 were studied, and all human and elephant deaths or injuries caused by conflict were recorded. The impact of human colonies on elephant movement was studied in 18 villages along 17 km of the sourthern boundary of the study site and 4 village in the Chilla-Motichur corridor. Three male and four female elephants were radio tracked for 1-2 years. Primary conflicts included crop raiding, competition between humans and elephants for vegetation, and elephant mortality due to train accidents. Adult males that raided crops had home ranges twice as large as adult males that did not raid crops. Elephants only damaged crop of fields that occurred within their home ranges. Field trails of chemical based deterrents and electric fencing should be tried to reduce crop damage. Train speeds need to be reduced to prevent accidental elephant mortality (Williams et al 2001).

Wild Elephant damages:
A rapid village and field assessments, data survey showed. Elephants raided crops at a rate of 0.53 elephants per day in Indonesia. The frequency of crop raiding was related to vegetation type along the park border, the size and presence of rivers, and the distance to the park’s Elephant Training Centre (ETC), which houses about 150 captive elephants. Wild elephants damaged at least 450000 m2 of maize, rice, cassava, beans and other annual crops, and close to 900 coconut, banana and other perennial trees in the area surveyed. Elephants killed or injured 24 .Villagers try to reduce elephant damage by guarding fields, digging trenches between the park and their fields, and modifying their cropping patterns. Elephants-human conflict decreases the probability of support from local people for conservation efforts. The approaches are suggested consist of elephant trenches, electric fences, external support to affected villages, and compensation to villagers for any damage caused (Nyhus et al 2000).

This study explores land use conflict in south east Kajiado District, Kenya. The results of household surveys conducted with farmers and herders in 1977 and 1996 to examine changes in land management strategies are compared. The conflict reflects ongoing competition over access to scarce land and water resources between herding, farming and wildlife are the reason of damage of crops. This man-animal conflict needs understanding the conditions that have created the present conflicts (Compbell et al 2000).
It is, therefore, suggested that 30% open space be used as a basic division for stratifying thickets into low –use and high-use categories for deer density estimation. The proportions of each type could be derived from grid-square measurements of aerial photographs (Latham J 2000).

Human elephant conflict
Human-elephant conflict (HEC) in Africa occurs wherever these two species coincide, and poses serious challenges to wild life managers, local communities and elephants alike. Mitigation requires a details understanding of underlying patterns and processes. Although temporal patterns of HEC are relatively predictable, spatial variation has shown few universal trends, making it difficult to predict where conflict will take place. Crop raiding was further subdivided into incidents involving only male elephants or family groups. A relatively fine-resolution, systematic, grid –based method was used to assign the locations of conflict incidents, and spatial relations with underlying variables were explored using correlation analysis and logistic regression. Crop raiding was clustered into distinct conflict zones. Both occurrence and intensity could be predicted on the basis of the area under cultivation and, for male elephant groups, proximity to major settlement. Conversely, incidents human injury and death were less predictable but were correlated with proximity to roads.

A grid-based geographical information system (GIS) with a 25km2 resolution utilizing cost-effective data source, combined with simple statistical tools, was capable of identifying spatial predictors of HEC, At finer resolutions spatial autocorrelation compromised the analyses. Synthesis and application. These results suggest that spatial correlates of HEC can be identified, regardless of the sex of the elephants involved. Moreover, the method described here is fully transferable to other sites for comparative analysis of HEC. Using these results to map vulnerability will enable the development and deployment of appropriate conflict mitigation strategies, such as guarding, early warning systems, barriers and deterrents. The utility of such methods and their strategic deployment should be assessed alongside alternative land-use and livelihood strategies that limit cultivation within the elephant range (Sitati et al 2003).

Human elephant conflicts (HEC) in west Bengal was an economic loss worth 3.2 crores. This much damage occurred in 3368 sq km radius inhibiting 62 elephants (Singh et al 2002)

6. Kerala Survey
Crop damage by wild animals in Kerala, India, was studied from 1993 to 1996. Data were collected from the offices of the Kerala Forest Department, field survey and from the intensive study area at Marayur, Idukki District. Forty-five species of crops were destroyed by wild animals in Kerala, the species commonly destroyed by wild animals were paddy, coconut plam , plantains , cassava , arecanut, coffee, oil plam , pepper , jack tree, mulberry and manago. The main animals involved in crop damage were elephant (Elephas maximus), gaur (Bos gaurus),sambar (Cervus unicolor), wild boar (Sus scrofa), bonnet macaque (Macaca radiate), common langur (Presbytis entellus), blacknaped hare (Lepus nigricollis) and pea fowl (Pavo cristatus). Among these, elephants and wild board gave maximum damage . Of the total compensation claimed by the farmers, only 8.2% was sanctioned by the Kerala Forest Department.

The highest crop damage (30%) was recorded from the forest ranges coming under the Northern Circle: pinapple (47%) , sweet potato (47%), tapioca (42%), alocasia (39%) , beans (25%) and plantains (23%) recorded highest percentage of damage. In the intensive study area at Marayur, 28 species of crops were damaged and highest damage was during the summer months. At maximum damage was due to elephant (72%) followed by gaur (62%) , sambar (17%) and wild boar (16%). Tiger (Panthera tigris), panther (leopard) (Panthera pardus) and wild dog (Conine alpinus) were the main cattle lifters in the state. A total of 31 deaths and 64 injuries caused by wild animals were recorded from the state during the period 1983 to 1993. Thirteen indigenous methods used for controlling the crop damage had been identified. High voltage electric fencing using energizer was effective for stopping elephants and other herbivores from entering the agriculture fields. Crop damage is found to be linked to the cropping pattern and location of the agriculture fields. Short term and long-term measures needed to prevent the crop damage are discussed (Jayson EA,1999).

7. Bird crop damages
Use of non-lethal method to avoid crop damages by bird have been reported. Blueberry damages by cedar waxwings (Bombycilla cedrotun were minimized. (Avery et al 2002).

8. Wild Bird damage
In the northern Great Plains of USA, conflicts between red-winged black birds (Agelaius phoeniceus) and sunflower (Helianthus annus) growers have intensified since the late 1960s due to the expanded commercial production of sunflowers. We studied the potential population effects of the removal of up to 2 million red-winged blackbirds annually under a 5 year programme of baiting during spring with DRC-1339 (3-choloro-4 methalalanine) treated rice. They also examined whether lethal control, in combination with current levels of breeding habitat management, would be cost effective in decreasing depredation of sunflower crops during late summer. They evaluated the cost benefit ration for 4 culling scenarios involving (1) variable annual cullus, not exceeding 2 million birds, with and without density compensation (i.e. ,a positive density-dependent response) on adult survival and (2) culls of 2 million birds annually with and without density compensation.

We constructed a red-winged blackbird population model represented as an age-based matrix and calibrated to stable growth. We assumed a total population of 27 million birds on 1 April (week 1), representing the red-winged blackbird breeding population staging in eastern Southern Dakota and migrating into North Dakota.Under each culling scenario, we reduced the stable red-winged blackbird population (Equally for females and males) and project the population through week 23 of the annual cycle (2 Sep). We then evaluated the associated costs of the management relative to potential sunflower crop losses, assuming $0.07 in damage per bird and 4% loss to other factors. Variable annual culls, likely the more biologically realistic model scenarios, yielded mean annual removals of 1 240 560 (SE=12 328) birds with density compensation and 1 231 620 (SE=28 811) birds without density compensation,, with cost benefit ratios of 1:2.3 and 1:3.6, respectively.

Annual intrinsic rates for the model population over the 5 year period ranged from 1-4 to 4.8%. Considering potential variability in the effectiveness of the cull and the combination of direct and indirect costs,we contend that the realized benefits to sunflower growers by lethal control of red-winged blackbiards via spring baiting , in combination with current nonlethal management efforts, would likely be negligible (Blackwell et al 2003).

The efficacy of hydrolyzed casein (HC) and retail products that contain HC in reducing deer damage to trees and shrubs was determined in a field experiments conducted in USA during 2004-05. The results of the experiments indicate the suitability of HC as a deer repellent. Technical grade HC completely eliminated browsing damage to evergreen shrubs (Gaultheria shallon) and conifers (Thuja plicata). Retail sources of HC were not as effective as the pure hydrolyzed protein (Kimball et al 2005).

9. Blackbird damages
The economic impact of blackbirds can be severe to rice producers in the United States. One approach to managing this damage is the application of bird-deterrent chemical to the crop. Previous pilot trials suggested that caffeine offered potential as a safe, economical bird repellent. In this study, cage feeding trials with female red –winged blackbirds and male brown headed cowbirds confirmed that a treatment rate of 25000 ppm caffeine on rice seed reduced consumption as much as 76% . Trials with mixed species blackbirds flocks in a 0.2-ha flight pen resulted in just 4% loss of caffeine-treated rice compared to 43% loss of untreated rice. . Field trials of a 10 000 ppm caffeine treatment in Louisiana revealed > 90% of caffeine-treated rice seed remained unconsumed on days 2 and 3 of the study whereas blackbirds consumed > 80% of the untreated seed. As a rice seed treatment to deter blackbirds, caffeine appears to be effective, economical and environmentally safe, although additional aquatic toxicity testing is desirable. Improvements in formulation will be needed to make the compound practical for general agricultural spray applications and to extend the adherence of caffeine to rice seeds in field conditions ((Avery et al 2005).

10. Deer damage
A questionnaire was distributed to over 2500 farms to know damage caused by lowland deer to crops, trees and vegetation. Results from the questionnaire showed that 69% (n=1192) of responding farmers had deer on their holdings and that Roe and Fallow were the most frequently seen species. On those farms with deer present, cereals were the most commonly damaged crop (44%), but only 15% of these farmers claimed that the annual cost of damage to cereals exceeded £500 each year for the whole farm. Validation assessments were based on two visits to assess deer damage to the crop, with a deer species/density assessment during the March assessment and an assessment of grain yield and quality during the August assessment.

Respondents were generally accurate in the density and species of deer reported. The percentage of the farm suffering damage attributable to deer was very variable, generally being higher at the first assessment than the second. The figures calculated for yield loss were generally low, Farmers were poor at estimating the economic impact of deer damage when compared to validation data, but a number of parameters may have changed in the two years between the questionnaire distribution and validation, including changes in deer density, crop rotations, and the marked drop in grain prices, which may account for some of the inaccuracies. There were no statistically significant relationships between deer damage assessments and yield loss, either for individual species or both species combined. The relationship between Roe deer damage at the harvest assessment and Roe deer density was significant (Post et al, 2001).

Wildlife managers must consider the public’s preferences for wildlife population levels when determining management policies. 849 farmers, hunters and the general public of Maryland. USA, were surveyed in 1996 to determine their preferences for increasing, maintaining, or decreasing deer population numbers. Using a random utility theoretic framework, the factors that explain preferences such as residential location, socioeconomic characteristics, landscape damage, agricultural yield loss and vehicle accidents were analyzed. Results suggested that the majority of people benefit from deer and want to keep deer population at current levels. Other characteristics such as age, income, education, and residential location have minor or no impact on preferences. Property damage, crop loss, landscape damage, and car accidents appear to be the biggest concerns ( Curtis et al 2001).

11. Sika deer population in Japan
Sika deer Cervus nippon population in eastern Hokkaido, Japan, increased rapidly during 1990-1998 . This increase appeared to have halted in 1999-2000, probably due to increased hunting and nuisance control. The period of rapid increase was associated with a disproportionately rapid increase in compensation paid for deer damage to crops. We studied changes in diet during 1990-2000, as reflected by stable isotope ratios of C and N in tooth collagen. We hypothesized that isotope ratios would demonstrate dietary shifts related to population levels and/or time, and that shifts in isotope ratios would be consistent with increasing individual consumption of pasture grasses at higher population levels, delta 13C isotope ratios of tooth collagen in 3 year-old sika indicated a diet dominated by C3 plants throughout the period, and that forage species other than pasture grasses and dwarf bamboo Sasa nipponica ( the main crop and woodland understory plants, respectively) were important elements. There was a significant decline in the delta 13C isotope ratio during 1990-2000 in both males and females, delta 15N values showed no trend with time for males, but increased over time in females.

Indices of population (Sightings per Unit Effort, SPUE) were negatively correlated with female delta 13C, and positively correlated with female delta 15N, values indicating a shift in diet over the period , especially among females. This shift may be related to population and/or offtake levels, in particular the rapid increase in female offtake for nuisance control and hunting during the period. The data are consistent with a relative increase in pasture grass consumption per individual at higher population levels, however, other explanations of the data are equally plausible. Possible dietary changes, and other factors, influencing the observed shift in isotope ratios are discussed. Although statistically significant, the magnitude of dietary shifts nevertheless appeared small, and did not provide evidence which would justify modifying the current policy, of limiting crop damage through managed population reduction to about 25% of peak levels( Halley et al 2006).

12. White-tailed deer damages
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) may cause more damage than any other species of wildlife. These damages include crop loss, automobile and aviation collisions, disease transmission, environmental degradation, and destruction of ornamental plantings. One practical method of controlling deer damage is the use of exclusionary fences. The relatively high cost of labor and materials required to build effective fences has limited most applications to the protection of orchards, vegetable farms, other high –value resources, and mitigation of human health and safety risks. Improvements in fence technology resulting in less expensive, yet effective fence have expanded the use of fence to manage damage caused by deer. Fence typically installed to manage white-tailed deer damage include wire or plastic mesh, electrified high-tensile steel wire, and electrified polytape or polyrope fence. They reviewed the scientific literature on fencing to determine which fence designs would be the most effective for excluding deer in a variety of situations (VerCauteren et al 2006).

The installation of fences to protect agricultural products, natural resources, or other areas from deer (Odocoileus spp.) can be expensive and potential benefits of fencing are difficult to quantify. A rational method is needed to help evaluate whether fencing can be cost effective and which fence designs will be optimal for particular applications. They describe an interactive, dynamic simulation model that conducts economic analyses and predicts economic benefit associated with fences for crops relative to area and perimeter of protected plot, value of crop, percentage of crop damaged by deer annually prior to fencing, efficacy of fence, and costs of fence materials and labor. Users of the model can easily adjust these variables to fit their individual situations and needs. By running a series of simulations, model users can answer questions related directly to fence efficacy and cost-effectiveness (VerCauteren K et al 2006).

13. Corn damage by wild life
Corn damages in USA were estimated at 6.6 per hac due to wild life. The white tailed deer was the wild animal responsible for loss. The average hacters owned by farmers were 125 out of which 55 hectares were sown corn. (Tzilkowsi et al 2002).

14. Deer Damage
Deer (Odocoileus spp.) can cause substantial damage to agricultural crops, resulting in economic losses for producers. They developed a deer activated bio-acoustic frightening device to reduce white-tailed deer (O, virginianus) damage in agricultural fields. The device considered of an infrared detection system that activated an audio component which broadcast recorded distress and alarm calls of deer. They tested the device against unprotected controls in cornfields during the silking-tasseling stage of growth in July 2001. The device was not effective in reducing damage: track-count indices (F1,4=0.02), corn yield (F1,9=1.27,P=0.289), and estimated damage levels (F1,10=0.87, P=0.374) did not differ between experimental and control fields. The size (F2,26=1,00,P=0.380), location (F2,25=0.39,P=0.684), and percent overlap (F2,25=0.20,P=0.818) of use-areas of radiomarked female deer did not differ between during and after treatment periods. They concluded that the deer-activated bio-acoustic device was not effective in protecting cornfields in this study; however, the device may be more effective in small areas such as gardens or for high value crops that do not grow tall enough to offer protective cover (Gilsdorf et al 2004).

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) cause millions of dollars of damage to agricultural crops annually . They tested the effectiveness of propane exploders and Electronic Guards (Pocatello Supply Depot, Pocatello, Id). For reducing deer damage in corn fields during the silking-tasseling stage of growth. Track-count indices (F2,7=0.70,P=0.532), corn yield (F2,6=0.14, P=0.873), and estimated damage levels (F2, 12=1,45 P=0.272) did not differ between experimental and control fields. The size (F2,11=0.08,P =0.924), Location (F2,9=0.30, P=0.750), and percent overlap (F2,9=0.46, P=0.644) of use –areas of radiomarked female deer in the vicinity of experimental fields did not differ among before, during and after 18 day treatment periods. In a related study, we placed propane exploders in cornfields within use-areas of 12 radiomarked female deer. The deer did not react appreciably to the devices; the size (F2, 17=0.08, P=0.921), location (F2,22=1.37, P=0.275), and percent overlap (f2,10=0.47, P=0.636) of deer use areas did not differ among before, during, and after 14 day treatment periods. They conclude that propane exploders and Electronic Guards have limited potential for reducing deer damage to corn at the silking-tasseling stage (Glisdorf et al 2004l.

A welfare measure for wildlife damage to Ontario (Canada) field crop producers during the 1998 was. The welfare measure presented in this study provides a more accurate picture of losses from wildlife damage to agricultural. Other damage estimates based on yield loss overstate the damage since benefits from wildlife are netted out. Results for the Ontario field crop producers indicate that the magnitude of the difference between the value of the yield loss and the welfare measure of damage is approximately 50%. This difference indicates that most farmers were willing to tolerate the wildlife damage they experienced (Heigh et al 2001).

15. Grapevine damages
In field trials in 1999-2000 in Gundla Pochampally, Andhra Pradesh, India , the incidence of damage to green grapevines was studied. Visits to the vines by bats begain around 45 minutes after sunset and foraging continued until 1 hour before sunrise. Damage occurred to ripe fruit only, and increased around harvesting time, percentage damage ranged from 0 to 100% (Bhargavi et al, 2001).

16. Hippo damage
The introduction to the paper described the various ecological effects known to result from grazing, movement along paths, and wallowing by the common hippo. Hippopotamus amphibious. The study reported was carried out at Kainji Lake National Park., Nigeria, during the dry season periods {of 1991 and 1992} . The method adopted by Agnew, A.D.Q. (East African Wildlife Journal (1966) 4, 38-46) was used to assess hippo foraging footprints at three hippo pool sites. A total of 32 footpaths were enumerated out of which 18 were located at Kaii hippo pool site, while the frequency of utilization of paths was also higher for this site relative to those in other area. The upstream-downstream trend in hippo occupancy of dry season water pools could expose the hippo to crop damage conflicts at the peripheral areas.

17. Hygo-Japan-mammal crop damages
Mammals inhabiting Hyogo consist of seven orders, 17 families and about 40 species. Except for Lagomorpha and Artiodactyla, the remaining five orders among them include species which need some protection and they total about 55% of all species excluding extinct, introduced and feral species. Ecological information in Hyogo prefecture has been accumulated in few protection-required species there is no recent information of spatial distribution on Oriental water-shrew, Japanese noctule-bat and Japanese dormouse; and little information on Japanese shrew, Japanese horse-shoe bat, Japanese large –footed bat. Schreiber’s bent-winged bat, Japanese tube-nosed bat, common parti-colored bat, Japanese squirrel, Japanese small flying-squirrel, Japanese giant flying-squirrel, smith’s vole harvest mouse and Japanese badger. Damage and population managements is also necessary in sika deer and Japanese wild boar, to reduce their crop--damaging, and comprehensive management in Japanese black bear, an endangered local population, to prevent human-bear fatal accident. Habitat alteration due to human activities, however, has affected the population sizes and spatial distribution of all these, mammals in Hyogo. Habitat management has priority over damage. Fundamental and applied scientific studies and understanding of ecology and wildlife management science needs promotion by citizens (Mitani M 2000).

18. Monkey damage
Forty-seven property owners in Entebbe, Uganda were questioned about vervet monkey activities on their property. The objective was to investigate the interactions between humans and vervet monkeys in an agricultural area adjacent to a forest zone. Other studies have reported that farms located within 300 m of a forested boundary probably incur the greatest risk of crop-raiding. Two other factors that may influence susceptibility to vervet crop-raiding were also examined: the types of crops grown and the types of direct preventive measures used. The effect of these two factors on vervet crop-raiding is not straight forward. However, the distance a property is located from the forest edge is an important factor influencing vervet crop raiding. Surveyed gardens 200 m from the forest edge received significantly less crop –raiding than farms located 100 or 50m (P=0.040,< alpha=0.05). In this study, 8 out of 13 farmers (61.5%) said that maize, sweet potato, or both, were most likely to be damaged by the vervets. Other crops singled out by the farmers are receiving damage by the vervets were bananas, mangoes, groundnuts and yam. They suggest that the development of non-agricultural activities on land directly adjacent to forested areas may reduce vervet crop –raiding by deterring vervets from traveling greater distances from the forest edge due to increased obstacles or risks (Saj et al 2001).

19. Bait damage
The longevity of zinc phosphide (ZP) on whole wheat bait was determined at the end of the "dry" and "wet" seasons, is Western Australia.. While the total rainfall during the two trials was 74 mm and 155mm, substantial loss of ZP was recorded only after significant rainfall events. Irrespective of season, the loss of ZP from bait applied in bait stations was minimal. The maximum recorded loss was 17% and this occurred after 21 days’ exposure during the wet season where the bait stations were placed in-crop. Nevertheless, regardless of the application method, sufficient ZP always remained on the wheat bait. Theoretically it was lethal to rats for at least 8-14 days (Twigg et al., 2001).
20.Venezuela experience:

In Venezuela, lethal control of wintering Dickcissels (Spiza Americana) is considered a threat to the species survival. To help farmers protect their rice and sorghum crops from by Dickcissels and to minimize the killing of large numbers of these birds, alternative non-lethal crop protection measures are needed. To that end, the responses of captive Dickcissels to three bird-repellent chemicals (anthraquinone,methyl anthranilate and methiocarb) applied to rice seed were evaluated. In one-cup feeding trials, treatments of methiocarb (0.05% g/g, applied as Mesurol 75% wettable powder) and anthraquinone (0.5%, applied as Flight Control) reduced consumption of rice by 70% relative to pretreatment consumption. Other anthraquinone treatments (0.05,0.1%) and methyl authranilate (0.05%) were inrffective. In two –cup trials, with untreated millet as the alternative food, consumption of rice treated with 0.05 and 0.1% anthraquinone was reduced by 90% relative to pretreatment levels. Overall, Dickcissels responded to the repellents similarly to the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). Because Flight Control has been used successfully to reduce blackbird use of rice fields in the USA, the prospect is good for successful reduction of damage to repening rice by Dickcissels in Venezuela, particularly if repellent use is coupled with the establishment of alternative feeding sites ( Avery et al 2001). Deer selected carrots over all green manure crops.

21. Nilgai damages in India
Crop-damage by nilgai has been widely reported from India. Are give Nilgai is for increasing in this region. Lack of natural predators, deforestation overgrazing and the protection of these animals from Hindu communities are reasons for their overpopulation. Tree cover of Acacia are generally used by nilgai as a day time shelter but not food, therefore it goes for crop-raiding in the late evening and at night, jumping across 6-7 feet high stone wall, barbed fencing and fences of dead or live thorny plant material and any other fencing/barrier made to protect the crop-. Due to habit of both grazing as well as browsing they devore every kind of farm species (both rabi and kharif crops). It has been observed that eating less but destroying more by trampling and causing damage are therefore regarded as serious mammalian crop pest and farmers wants to get ride of this unconventional pest. The farmers chase them away by just following them by making loud sound by crackers or air gun fires, following through tractors, empty tin or dried pumpkin filled with small stones and connected with strings. Technically, carrots(enclosures), trenching or power fencing are suggested to mitigate the crop damage. Secondly, animals could be translocated to wildlife sanctuaries from the sites they seen overcrowded or severe crop raiding problems (Goyal et al 2000).

22. Pesticides and wildlife
A range of monitoring activities has shown impacts of anticholinesterase pesticides on UK wildlife, and continued risks are evident from laboratory and field experiments, together with the scale of use in the field. Along with other broad spectrum insecticides, many organophosphates have adverse direct effects on non-target arthropods in farmland, and so are likely to contribute towards indirect effects of pesticides on farmland biodiversity. The anticholinesterase insecticides have both lethal and sublethal effects on aquatic wildlife, however the history of recent incidents of damage to river ecology following the wider use of synthetic pyrethroid sheep dips, illustrates the need to consider the implications of changes in the use of alternative products when reviewing these insecticides ( Burn 2000).

The use of anthraguinone-based flight control and methyl anthranilate-based non toxic avian foraging repellent we used to avoid crop damage by sandhill cranes. Thought both repellents were effective at deterring cranes from treated corn, neither has been tested on corn under field conditions. (Blackwell et al 2001).

Oak seedlings were scientifically raised. Seedling mortality and wild life browse damages were minimal when certain herbicide mixture was used. Biologically and aesthetically, the procedure was extremely successful (Ezell et al 1999).

Pre-commercially thinned (forests are less prone to moose damage (McLaren et al, 2000).

23. Pesticide use in conflicts
Pesticides can cause damage to man and beneficial organism. Some sub-lethal effects of pesticides were studied in birds with a view to identifying characteristic biochemical responses that may be useful for the monitoring of exposure to sub-lethal levels in the field. Pesticides were used; demeton-S-methyl, (DSM),chlorpyriphos, chlorfenviphos, triazophos, pirimicarb, methiocarb and permethrin. Blood was collected before dosing, and 2,6,24,48 and 72 hours after the treatment from the brachial vein of birds. Enzyme, activities were assayed in the plasma or serum samples obtained. The assays used were GOT,MHD, GDH, SDH,GAMMA GT and ChE. The results showed an increase in plasma and serum GOT and gamma-GT levels were found in all animals treated with the previous pesticides. The level of ChE increased in birds after treatment with permethrin. It was concluded that the pesticides cause structural and functional changes in the liver and also, the measurement of the previous parameter activities may be useful for assessing exposure and sub-lethal effects of pesticides on the wildlife (Dahamna et al 2004).

24. IPM and crop losses
The queensland sugar, industry has recently implemented a comprehensive integrated pest management (IPM) system to minimize crop losses from two antive rodent species, Rattus sordidus (canefield rat) and Melomy burtoni (climbing rat). These species inflicted approximately $25M of damage in a major outbreak in the 1999-2000 seasons. Both of these rodents are listed as common wildlife under the schedules of the queensland nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994. The IPM programme is based on understanding the ecology and biology of each species. It incorporates a large-scale monitoring programme aimed at providing early warning of imminent rodent build up to avert major outbreaks. The industry has also developed a memorandum of understanding with Queensland State Government, which delivers on the industry’s pest management needs, while providing an improved system of accountability for the taking of two of Queenslands native wildlife species. The consensus reached between the cooperating parties (The Bureau of sugar Experiment Stations, CANEGROWERS, regionally-based Cane Productivity Services, and the outcomes can be negotiated between rural industry and environmental interests (Hunt et al 2004) .

In Areas around Lake Mburo National Park ,large wild animals wander in close proximity to human settlement . This poses serious conflict in terms of crop damage. The integration of conservation with other land uses is difficult where densely settled agricultural land surrounds a protected area potentially containing problem animals, as is the case for several parks in Africa and Asia. The intensity of crop raiding was quantified through the use of random crop quadrants/plots and area estimation techniques in a portion of raided fields. The animal species concerned were documented from observations, footprints and any other marks left behind. Three variables were tested as predictors of damage; human population density, distance from the park boundary and season. In this study data is presented regarding crop loss in the different seasons of the year, analysis of crop damage variation and animal species involved in crop loss. A diverse assemblage of animals foraged on subsistence crops and analysis of crop damage revealed significant crop depreciation by wildlife( Kagoro et al 2004).

25. Hawai Pest
The apple snail, P.canaliculata, is an aquatic freshwater snail native to South America, Originally imported to Hawai’i as pets for the aquarium trade, they were soon introduced into wetland plots known as "lo’s" where taro (Colocasia esculenta), an economically and culturally significant crop, is grown. Some individuals reasoned that the snails, being edible, could be harvested as food, and that raising the snails along with the taro in the "Io’s" would provide income supplemental to the taro harvest with minimum additional input. This introduction of snails into the taro "lo’i" however, proved to be a disaster. Farmers failed to take into account the voracity , reproductive potential, and rapid growth of the snails.

Because of the ideal conditions in the taro "lo’i", the snails multiplied rapidly and fed heavily on the taro shoots and corns in many cases, destroying a complete crop before harvest time. Hindisight has shown that the snails are dissipated via the irrigation system throughout the "lo’i" and then spread to the surrounding wetland areas. Large breeding populations are now established in wetland areas on the islands of Hawai’e, O’ahu, Kaua’I, and Maui. Some of these wetlands are wildlife preserves with state and federal mandates that restrict the potential methods of eradication. Background information is provided on both P.canaliculata and taro to fully explain the challenges and opportunities that this situation presents (Tamaru et al 2006).

26. Chemical repellents
Chemical feeding repellents applied to ripening sunflower might help reduce blackbird (lcteridae) damage, which is a chronic agricultural problems from seed information harvest. However, cost are high to develop and register new repellents for agricultural use. In 2003 and 2004, we evaluated feeding repellency of 8 pesticides registered by the Environmental Protection Agency for use in sunflower. Caged red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) were fed unshelled sunflower seeds treated with the following pesticides: 5 pyrethroid insecticides, an organochlorine, an organophosphorus, and a gungicide. Compared to untreated reference groups, feeding rates were reduced for 4 of the 5 pyrethroid insecticides. Only the organophosphorus (chlorpyrifos), however, significantly decreased feeding rates. More research on repellency effects of this product in field efficacy trials is probably warranted based on the results of our cage experiments. Depending on timing of application, registered insecticides with blackbird feeding repellency could provide supplemental economic benefits to sunflower producers through dual purpose use ((Linz et al 2006).

27. Persistent organic pollutants (POPS)
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have spread throughout the global environment to threaten human health and damage ecosystems, with evidence of POPs contamination in wildlife, human blood, and breast milk documented worldwide. Based on data from the US Food and Drug Administration, this article provides a brief overview of POPs residues in common foods in the USA food supply. The analysis focuses on 12 chemical compounds now targeted for an international phase out under the Stockholm convention on POPs. The available information indicates that POPs residues are present in virtually all categories of foods, including baked goods, fruit, vegetables, meat, poultry, and dairy products. Residues of five or more persistent toxic chemicals in a single food item are not unusual, with the most commonly found POPs being the pesticides DDT ( and its metabolites, such as DDE) and dieldrin. Estimated daily doses of dieldrin alone exceed the US Environmental Protection Agency and US Agency for Toxic Substances Disease Control reference dose for children. Given the widespread occurrence of POPs in the food supply and the serious health risks associated with even extremely small levels of exposure, prevention of further food contamination must be a national health policy priority in every country. Implementation of the Stockholm Convention will prevent further accumulation of persistent toxic chemicals in food. Early ratification and rapid implementation of this treaty should be an urgent priority for all governments (Schafer et al 2002).

28. Netherland experiences
Traditionally, pink-footed geese Anser Brachyrhynchus wintering in Denmark, the Netherlands and Belgium have used the Danish sites only during mild winter, rapidly moving southwards in case of cold spells. Since the 1980s, an increasing number of geese have remained on the Danish wintering grounds despite cold spells, foraging on pastures Because winter wheat represented a reliable and profitable food source even in sever winter, the recent change in Agricultural practice has enhanced the development of a new wintering strategy of pink-footed geese, allowing a northward expansion of their winter range. Potentially, this will increase the crop damage conflict and may lead to further population growth ( Therkidsen et al 2000).

Enclosure trials near Huron, CA in the San Joaquin Valley from 12 to 23 January 1999 , determine the efficacy of Flight Control TM (50% anthraquinone) and Mesurol R (75% methiocarb) in preventing horned lark damage to lettuce seedlings. Flight control TM (FC) and Mesurol R were evaluated as foliar sprays at application rates of 2.79 and 2.27 kg ha-1, respectively. Horned lark damage to lettuce seedlings treated with anthraquinone was greater (p=0.015) than for methiocarb R, 60 versus 20% , respectively, and seedlings in control plots were 100% destroyed. While this level of damage is probably unacceptable to lettuce growers, it should be remembered that the enclosure situation caused an artificially high bird pressure on the crop. Further studies in open fields under a more normal bird pressure are warranted ( York et al 2000).

29. Ozone injury
Incidence and severity of visible foliar ozone injury on cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L.) and crown-bread (Verbesina Occidentalis Walt). Were determined .It is thus a matter of consideration that zone injury may harm vegetation harmed by browsing or even cutting. Ozone injury was greatest on the lower leaves for both species sampled with over 95% of the injured leaves occurring on the lower 50% of the plant. This is the first report of foliar ozone injury on these plant species in situ, in the Park, illustrating the great variability in symptom expression with time, and within and between populations ( Chappelka et al 2003).

30. Protected arrears and humans
Knowledge of conflicts between people and protected areas is required for the design of sustainable conservation strategies for the management of most protected areas. The study identifies the causes of conflicts between local people and the Benous Wildlife Conservation Area (BWCA), which includes the Benous National Park, In northern Cameroon. Informal interviews and questionnaires were administered to 114 households in three communities, and to 17 park staff and 7 professional hunting guides from July –October 1997. Crop damage affected 86% of the surveyed household, with 31% of crop income lost on average, and with the damage varying significantly between communities. Elephants, baboons, patas monkeys. Warthogs and green parrots accounted for 97% of crop damage, with the staple food maize and millet being most affected. Of the respondents 27% experienced livestock depredation, with 18% of livestock income lost on average.

The civet cat was the main predator. The involvement of local people in illegal activities, their lack of access to natural resources, and damage by wildlife were identified as principal causes of conflicts. Local people, park staff and professional hunting guides had diverse and differing perceptions about the causes of the conflicts and made various suggestions for reduction of wildlife damage including animal scaring and controlled shooting. We conclude that, under current wildlife policy, conflict between people and BWCA (Bonous Wildlife Conservation area) is difficult to resolve. To reduce conflicts and promote sustainable conservation, we suggest co-management of wildlife involving all stakeholders, establishment of crop damage control teams, and promotion of tangible benefits to local people. There may be a requirement for site –specificity in management strategies (Weladji et al 2003).

31. Low technology use to avoid damages
It is suggested that an integrated, community-based, low technological approach will be the most sustainable solution to this conflict ( Osborn et al 2003).

Blackbirds (lcteridae) annually damage US$5-8 million of ripening sunflower in the northern Great Plains. Baiting blackbirds with avicide-treated rice during spring migration might reduce the regional breeding populations. birds can be successfully baited with avicide-treated rice placed in corn stubble (Linz et al 2003).

Plant debris accumulation is viewed as a key factor determining small mammal abundance and potential damage in low-till agricultural ((Stermer et al 2003) areas.

The projected total value of crop yield losses due to wildlife damage for buffer zone villages located in Garhwal Himalaya in about Rs.5 38 620 (US$15 389). Besides food grain, horticultural crops i.e apple, also suffered. Major wildlife agents responsible for crop damage were wild board, bear, porcupine, monkey, musk deer and partridge (Chokor). Monkey and wild boar alone accounted for about 50% to 60% of total crop damage in the study village. Goat and sheep are the major livestock killed by leopard. The total value of livestock losses at prevailing market rates is about Rs. 10 24 520 (US$ 29 272) in the study village. Due to existing conservation policies and laxity in implementation of preventive measures, the problems for local inhabitants are increasing. Potential solutions discussed emphasize the need to undertake suitable and appropriate protective measures to minimize the crop losses. Change in cropping and crop composition, particularly cultivation of medicinal plants (high value low volume crops), were also suggested. Besides, fair and quick disbursement of compensation for crop loss and livestock killing need to be adopted. Local people of the buffer zone area already have a negative attitude towards park/reserve establishment due to socio-political changes inducing major economic losses and this attitude may lead to clashes and confrontations if proper ameliorative measures are not taken immediately ( Rao et al 2002).

32. Rodent control by capsaicin
Capsaicin, present in most hot sauces and salsas, are responsible for the "hot" sensation in many spicy foods. At high doses, capsaicin cause significant discomfort upon contact with the sensitive tissues of the mouth and throat of mammals. By applying a capsaicin containing paste to the outside of maple tree sap collection, tubing, operators hope to minimize rodent (primarily red squirrel, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) gnawing damage to the tubing. However, some operators and sap processors have expressed concern regarding the potential migration of capsaicin through the tubing and into the tree sap, leading to contaminated maple syrup. To address these concerns, we filled a variety of new and used sap collection tubing with maple sap. Plugged the ends, and coated the tubing with a commercially available capsaicin-based rodent repellent paste. Following storage, the contents of the tubes were carefully removed and subjected to a solid-phase extraction clean-up process. Capsaicins in the sap were then quantified by high performance liquid chromatography/fluorescence detection. Results indicate that polyethylene tubing was more resistant to capsaicins migration than was polyvinyl tubing. While capsaicins were detected in the sap, the perfected levels in syrup would be below the human taste threshold (Johnston et al 2002). Wildlife management in Australia with crop losses by rabbits and foxes is discussed (Kidd 2002)

33. Rice –damage in Portugal
Rice fields are preferred feeding areas of mallard, Anas platyrhynchos, in central Portugal. Rice consumption by mallards prior to crop harvest causes conflicts between farmers and waterfowl managers. They analysed the food habits of mallrads collected from rice fields and quantified the impact that mallards had on rice production. Oesophagi, including proventriculi (n=52)< were obtained from hunter-shot mallards, from 15 August to late September of 1993, 1994 and 1995, on a 600-ha farm included in the main feeding area of the lower Mondego population. Point counts were performed to estimate the numbers of mallards using the area. The diet included rice seeds (51.2% dry matter), weed seeds of rice fields (23.6%, dry matter), and animal matter (25,1% dry matter). By means of the diet composition, we calculated that each mallard needed to ingest 93.4 g (dry matter) of food daily including 47.8 g of rice, to meet its energy requirements. The estimated mallard population using the area was 1600 ducks. They consumed approximately 0.2% of the 4000 kg/ha minimum rice production. Therefore, the decrease in rice production caused by mallard was insignificant, which suggests that the existence of mallards on rice fields is compatible with rice production (Rodrigues et al 2002).

An effective, economic , and environmentally safe bird repellent is needed to reduce blackbird (Icterinae; such as Agelaius phoeniceus, Quiscalus quiscula, Q. Major, Q. mexicanus and Molothrus ater) depredations to newly planted rice. We evaluated Flight Control TM, a 50% anthraquinone produce, as a seed treatment for newly planted rice in Louisiana, USA, during March 1998. We treated rice seed with Flight Control at a 2% (g/g) concentration (1% active anthraquinone) the day of planting. This concentration reduced the number of blackbirds (P=0.0003) using treated fields and blackbird damage to rice seed (P=0.0124). The chemical concentration of anthraquinone on rice seed averaged 0.79% (SE=0.06%) at planting , 0.39% (SE=0.04%) at day 1,0.34% (SE=0.05%) at day 3, and 0.41% (SE=0.06%) at day 5 post-planting. Rice seedling counts were similar between treated and untreated enclosures, suggesting that Flight Control had no phytotoxic effect to rice seed. Our results showed Flight Control to be an effective blackbird repellent that warrants further developments as a management tool to reduce blackbird damage to newly planted rice and other agricultural commodities (Cummings et al 2002).

34. South American conflicts
The coypus (also called nutria) has been introduced from its origins in South America to every continent except Australia and Antarctica. While perceived in some regions as a valuable resource, in most regions the animals are considered a pest species. Copypus have caused damage to water control structures, crops, and marsh systems and are considered a disease host. Eradication efforts have met with varying degrees of success. For those efforts to be successful, the coypus populations must be isolated to prevent reintroduction, harsh winters are necessary to reduce their populations, and intensive trapping efforts mist be sustained until the last coypu has been removed (Carter et al 2002).

35. Virginia reports
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations in Virginia and other eastern states have grown noticeably over the last decade, elevating concern about negative human-deer interactions. To evaluate these concerns among a subset of Virginia (USA) stakeholders, we sent a questionnaire to 1506 Agricultural producers and homeowners to determine their perceptions about deer damage and management during 1995 (adjusted response rate=52%). Most respondents (58%) experienced deer damage to their crops or ornamental plants in 1995, but producers experienced more damage than homeowners. An individuals experience with damage during 1995 strongly influenced his opinion about deer and their management. Respondents experiencing severe damage were more likely to consider deer a nuisance and support dramatic reductions in Virginia deer herd. Deer density influenced agricultural producers’ perceptions regarding deer damage and their desire for future population management. Our observations may serve as a foundation for future efforts to quantify cultural carrying capacity (CCC) and incorporate it into management (West et al 2002).

36. Forest Management practices
Initially, elephant caused considerable damage to man and crops. With the introduction of Joint Forest Management practices, development programmes including Project Elephant scheme are implemented mostly through people’s participation in Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary. Man-elephant conflict mitigation, viz., ex-gratia and compensation for losses, preventive measures initiated by the management of protected Areas, raising fodder plots, improvement of water facilities, construction of pulsative power fence, communication network, awareness campaigns, and change in crop pattern, and their impact are discussed ( (Prasad et al 2002).

An evaluation of 49 existing power fences in Northern Begal that have been established from 1982 to 1997 to keep elephants (Elphas maximus) out from the plantation, human habitations in various ranges and tea gardens and crop fields, was carried out. Fences varied from single strand to 6 strands but majority were in the category of 2-3 strands. There was a general flaw of species-species-specific design for elephants in terms of energizing the surroundings of the fence posts, which exposed them for their vulnerability to uprooting or pushing over. Corroding GI wires and improper insulation materials were the reasons for power loss varying from 0.5-7.3 KV between source to the end . In 18% of the cases (n=9) poor battery maintenance was the reason for low power output to shock the elephants. The energizer output at negative and positive terminals varied from 1.6-9.6 KV and 1.2-8.5 kV, respectively. The leaking at earthling points varied from 0-1.9kV, which is quite substantial. . The technical and maintenance problems were invariably acute in nearly all fences yet 26% were effective in output terms. The authors recommend initiation of stakeholder participation of installation and maintenance of fences, as large number of poorly maintained fences could be sources of learning for elephants to breach the fence line repeatedly. Important recommendations for design, maintenance and periodic training need to frontline staff and stakeholders are suggested (Chuhan et al 2002).

37. Rodent Damages
The mountain beaver (Aplodontia rufa) is a rodent species endemic to the Pacific Northwest and portions of California. The herbivore inflicts millions of dollars of damage annually to forest seedling plantations. Currently, extensive trapping prior to planting is the most reliable method for reducing damage. With increasing restrictions placed on trapping, forest resource managers need alternative tools to minimize forest damage. This study assessed the potential of four toxicants registered for underground use to control mountain beaver; zinc phosphide, diphacinone,chlorophacinone, and strychinine. Zinc phosphide and strychnine are acutetoxicants, whereas diphacinone and chlorophacinone are anticoagulants. Anticoagulants prevent the recycling of vitamin K in the body, which inhibits the production of clotting factors. Efficacy varied among treatments. Zinc phosphide and strychnine were avoided by mountain beaver, Pre-baiting marginally increased acceptance of strychnine, but did not alter mountain beaver acceptance of zinc phosphide. Diphacinone and chlorophacinone were both readily consumed, but only chlorophacinone was 100% effective after a 14 –day baiting regime.

Subsequently, we tested the effects of diet on the efficacy of diphacinone by varying the availability of food containing citamin K, the anticoagulant antidote. Restricting access to potential sources of Vitamin K appeared to increase efficacy. They conclude that anticoagulants hold some promise as additional tools for managers to reduce mountain beaver populations with chlorophacinone showing the most promise. However, limitations to anticoagulant baits include the necessity of long –term bating (greater than 10 days), a possible decrease in toxicity if baits contact moisture, and potential primary hazards (Arjo et al , 2004.}

38. Proximity to human habitation hazards
In areas around Lake Mburo National Park, large wild animals wander in close proximity to human settlements. This poses serious conflict in terms of crop damage. The integration of conservation with other land uses is difficult where densely settled agricultural land surrounds a protected area potentially containing problem animals, as is the case for several parks in Africa and Asia. The intensity of crop raiding was quantified through the use of random crop quadrants/Plots and area estimation techniques in a portion of raided fields. The animal species concerned were documented from observations, footprints and any other marks left behind. Three variables were tested as predictors of damage; human population density, distance from the park boundary and season. In this study, data is presented regarding crop loss in the different seasons of the year, analysis of crop damage variation and animal species involved in crop loss. A diverse assemblage of animals foraged on subsistence crops and analysis of crop damage revealed significant crop depreciation by wild life (Kagoro et al 2004).

The Queensland sugar industry has recently implemented a comprehensive integrated pest management (IPM) system to minimize crop losses from two native rodent species. Rattus sordidus (Canefield rat) and Melomys burtoni (Climbing rat). These species inflicted approximately $25 M of damage in a mjor outbreak in the 1999-2000 seasons. Both of these rodents are listed as common wildlife under the schedules of the Queensland Nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994. The IPM programme is based on understanding the ecology and biology of each species. It incorporates a large-scale monitoring programme aimed at providing early warning of imminent rodent builup to avert major outbreaks ((Hunt et al 2004).

39. Control measures
Recent advances in weed control technology have changed how vegetational diversity can be managed in agroecosystems. This 2 year study (2001 and 2002), in Delaware, USA) assessed the impact of altering the timing of herbicide application in herbicide (glyphosate)-resistant field maize (cv.Dekalb 626RR) on the European maize borer, O.nubilalis, and on the beneficial insects that prey on O. nubilalis egg masses, Treatments in this study were intended to allow weed presence in the field for varying periods of time, but the control of the weeds before crop yield was negatively affected. Effects on O.nubilalis oviposition were assessed directly by counting egg masses and indirectly, through assessment of the damage done to corn stalks resulting from O. nubilalis or the beneficial insects that prey on its egg masses. End –of-season stalk comparisons showed no differences in O. nubilalis infestation levels among the treatments. Predation on sentinel egg masses showed few significant differences among treatments, and predator densities were only rarely significantly different by treatment and showed no evident trends. This data suggest that under the conditions of this experiment, manipulating herbicide applications to minimize O.nubilalis damage is not a viable management technique in field maize (Wilson et al., 2004).

40. Impact of control measures
Data from an attitudinal questionnaire survey of 202 households in four villages are used to examine local perceptions of wildlife crop-damage in terms of relative impact and which wildlife species were responsible . We explore the influence of wildlife crop-damage on attitudes to the adjacent game reserve. Data on the frequency of crop-damage events and estimated severity impact, recorded during a 6 month programme of crop –damage monitoring in one of the survey villages, are used to described on-farm patterns of crop-damage .Comparison of the two data sets indicates a disjunction between the nature of the wildlife crop –damage, conflict as perceived by local villagers, and as it actually occurs in the study area (Gillingham et al 2003).

In the northern Great Plains of USA, Conflicts between red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus) growers have intensified since the late 1960s due to the expanded commercial production of sunflowers. The potential population effects of the removal of up to 2 million red-winged blackbirds annually under a 5-year programme of baiting during spring with DRC-1339(3-choloro-4-methalalanine)-treated rice. It was examined whether lethal control, in combination with current levels of breeding-habitat management, would be cost-effective in decreasing depredation of sunflower crops during late summer. They evaluated the cost –benefit ratio for 4 culling scenarios involving (1) variable annual culls, not exceeding 2 million birds, with and without density compensation (i.e., a positive density-dependent response) on adult survival ; and (2) culls of 2 million birds annually with and without density compensation. They constructed a red winged blackbird population model represented as an age-based matrix and calibrated to stable growth. A total population of 27 million birds on 1 April (week 1), representing the red-winged blackbird breeding population staging in eastern South Dakota and migrating into North Dakota. Under each culling scenario, they reduced the stable red-winged blackbird population (equally for female and males) and projected the population through week 23 of the annual cycle. They evaluated the associated costs of the management relative to potential sunflower crop losses, assuming $0.07 in damage per bird and 4% loss to other factors. Variable annual culls, likely the more biologically realistic model scenarios, yielded mean annual removals of 1240560 (SE=12328) birds with density compensation and 1231620(SE=28811) birds without density compensation, with cost benefit ratios of 1:2.3 and 1:3.6, respectively. Annual intrinsic rates for the model population over the 5-year period ranged from 1.4 to 4.8%. Considering potential variability in the effectiveness of the cull and the combination of direct and indirect costs, we contend that the realized benefits to sunflower growers by lethal control of red-winged blackbirds via spring baiting. In combination with current nonlethal management efforts, would likely be negligible (Blackwel et al 2003).

41. Community dependence on wild life
A study was conducted in December 1999 in four villages in Assam, India to: identify the nature of dependence of local communities on the forest resource; evaluate the pressures on the forest, especially due to wood collection; evaluate the socio-economic status of the villages; and recommend solutions based on community participation. The villagers were 100% dependent on the forest for fuelwood and grazing, but there was only a 2% dependence for non-timber forest products. All four forest villages faced problems of crop damage by wild animals, particularly by elephants {Elephas maximus). The field visits and interviews revealed that 73% of the woodcutters or fuelwood collectors were men while only 10 and 16% were women and children, respectively. The majority of the woodcutters belonged to the 16 to 30 years old age group and most woodcutters collect wood on a weekly-basis. It was also found that the woodcutters collect 48.5 of wet wood and 35.5% of regenerating trees, which is the major factor leading to the destruction of the forest. Some of the problems related to the community-based conservation approach include lack of communication with villagers, lack of coordination between departments, difficulties due to delays in salary payment, lack of field equipment, non-involvement of grassroots people in decision making, lack of communication between villagers and the district administration, short-term strategies, and lack of alternative livelihoods (Dilip et al 2003).

The Indian wild pig (Sus scrofa cristatus) was identified as the major crop pest in this area, accounting for 99% of the crops damaged The actual loss was estimated at 257.19 kg ha-1 accounting for approximately 7% of the actual produce. The electric fence was not effective in preventing crop raiding by the wild pig. Extent of damage might be a factor of time spent in the paddy field, suggesting that wild pigs might raid paddy fields for habitat requirements rather than for nutritional requirements. It is vital to understand crop raiding patterns prior to the implementation of control strategies ((Jeyasingh et al 2003).

Bahundangi Village Development Committee (BVDC) was selected for crop damage assessment by Asian Wild Elephants (Elephas maximus). Out of 9 wards of BVDC, 8 wards were selected for household survey. Regression analyses were carried out to define crop raiding based on the distance of wards and wildlife habitat. Paired T-tests were carried out to compare the economic loss in 1999 and 2001. The number of the small and big herds were composed of 10-13 and 50-74 elephants, respectively. The big herd raided BVDC and Darjeeling district in India, whereas the small herds raided areas from Jhapa to Udayapur districts (about 200 km from East to West). Within one and half decades, elephants demolished 277 houses and killed 66 people in the 5 districts; 23 elephants were killed. The damage due to elephants vary within wards. Economic loss of US$ 54567.00 in 1999 and US$ 33669.00 in 2001 were estimated. Farmers of VDC spend US$ 175.90 to US$ 228.60 to deter elephants. The paper suggests compensatory regulations as a solution to the problems (Yadav BR, 2003). Net costs of wildlife damages are reviewed (Rollin et al 2004, Potter, 1998 )

42. England scenario
Characteristics of damage to agricultural land caused by a small feral population of wild board Sus scrofa in southern England were studied. Fifty-eight reports of rooting damage to grassland and one of rooting in a cereal crop were recorded between December 1997 and November 2002. Most reports (74%) concerned damage in January, February or March. Damage mainly occurred in fields adjacent to woodland, but there was no evidence of selection between different grassland types. The severity of damage was assessed and potential options for reducing damage in the future are suggested (Wilson C.J, 2004).

43. Sterilization control
A graphical and quantitative frame work is described linking production yield, damage by vertebrate pests, their abundance and density-dependent responses to imposed sterilization. Compensatory responses of yield to pest damage and pest populations to fertility control are described as part of the modeling. The focal relationship is that between yield and the proportion of a pest population permanently sterilized, which is shown to be generally positive though the form of the relationship varies with differing assumptions. Compensatory responses to pest damage of production systems, such as crops livestock, trees or fish, generate non-linear responses between yield and pest damage, and yield and pest abundance. Compensatory responses by a pest population generate linear or curved relationships between abundance and the proportion of females sterilized. The model is illustrated using data from empirical studies, especially of European rabbits in Australia and New Zealand. It is recommended that the framework be evaluated on wild population of vertebrate pests (Hone J 2004).

44. Animal vs wild life damages
The cost of living with wildlife are assessed using Namibian subsistence farmer’s willingness to pay (WTP) for deterrents to attack on crops and livestock as a measure of damage costs. The household survey conducted for this assessment covered 165 households from different agro-ecological zones and villages. A utility –theoretic approach jointly estimates household WTP for deterrent programmes in two "currencies", maize and cash. This has a double payoff. Use of a non-cash staple increase respondent comprehension and provide more information about preferences, improving the accuracy of results. The household shadow value of maize is also identified. Significant costs from living with elephants and other types of wildlife are demonstrated. Compensation for farmers may be warranted on equity and efficiency grounds. Uncontrolled domestic cattle generate even high costs to farmers than wildlife, highlighting the need to clarify property rights among these farmers (Sutton et al 2004).

45. Chemical control of Rats
Replicated fields trials were conducted to compare the efficacy of zinc phosphide, strychnine and chlorpyrifos for the control of house mice (Mus domesticus) infesting recently sown wheat in South Australia. Bait was prepared using whole-wheat grain or grain-based pellets and broadcast into the crops at 1 kg/ha. Treatment with zinc phosphide reduced mouse number by 98%. Two treatments with strychnine baits, applied 11 days, apart, also reduced mouse number by 98% with no evidence of bait aversion in mice that survived the initial treatment. On the basis of these and other published results, zinc phosphide is considered an effective alternative to strychnine for control of house mice in cereal crops. Chlorpyrifos baits reduced mouse number by less than 10%. The trial began too late in the growing season to prevent substantial mouse damage to seed (Mutze et al 2004).

46. Wildlife Migration
This study examines the role of cultivated food plants and their seasonality in the diet of wild boars, determine the extent and damage of crop raiding by wild boars, lists the species of crops, vegetables, fruits and flowers affected by the wild boards, estimates the economic losses and threats to the livelihood of farmers living in a around Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary , Rajasthan, India and looks at the various strategies employed by the people in the conservation and management of wild animals (Chhangani et al 2004).

This study develops a model for wildlife migrating seasonally between a conservation area and a neighbouring area. When the wildlife is outside the conservation area, harvesting take place by a group of small-scale farmers. The local people have two motives for harvesting to get rid of "problem" animals as roaming wildlife destroys crops and agricultural products; and to hunt for meat and trophies. Depending on the specification of the property rights, the harvesting is legal or illegal. It is demonstrated that it is far from clear which of the two property rights regimes give the highest wildlife abundance. Hence, contrary to what is argued for in the literature, handing the property rights over to the local people does not automatically mean more wildlife and more "sustainable" resource utilization. The reason lies in the nuisance motive for harvesting. The exploitation under the two different property rights regimes are illustrated by numerical calculations that represent the exploitation of the wildebeest population in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem (on the border of Tanzania and Kenya) (Johannesen et al 2004).

47. Conservation and conflicts
Conflict with human over livestock and crops seriously undermines the conservation prospects of India’s large and potentially dangerous mammals such as the tiger (Panthera tigris) and elephant (Elephas maximus).This study, carried out in Bhadra Tiger Reserve in South India, estimates the extent of material and monetary loss incurred by resident villagers between 1996 and 1999 in conflicts with large felines and elephants, describes the spatiotemporal patterns of animal damage, and evaluates the success of compensation schemes that have formed the mainstay of loss-alleviation measures. Annually each household lost an estimated 12% (0.9 head) of their total holding to large felines, and approximately 11% of their annual grain production (0.82 tonnes per family) to elephants. Compensations awarded offset only 5% of the livestock loss and 14% of crop losses and were accompanied by protracted delays in the processing of claims. Although the compensation scheme has largely failed to achieve its objective of alleviating loss, its implementation requires urgent improvement if reprisal against large wild mammals is to be minimized. Furthermore, innovative scheme of livestock and crop insurance need to be tested as alternatives to compensations ( Madhusudan 2003).

48. Fire wood and conflicts:
The study examined how multiple land use and activities such as firewood collection, livestock grazing, collection of non-timber forest products, fishing and hunting vary among villages and the losses households have incurred from wildlife raiding crops and preying on livestock within the Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary. A household level social survey was conducted during 2002 in all 16 villages in Bhadra, and results are described from 6 villages. Regardless of socioeconomic status and their ability to afford alternatives, all households collected firewood. Livestock were grazed primarily in the forest. Three commercial non-timber forest products were collected and sold to traders or directly; seegakai (Acacia concinna), soap nut (Sapindus emarginatus) and wate huli (Artocarpus locoocha). The collection of non-commercial non-timber forest products appeared to be driven by their distribution and ease of extraction. Fishing was an important source of protein in most households. Although illegal in Bhadra, hunting did occur, but boar was extremely high in all villages. Fuelwood, fodder, fish and non-timber forest products are major natural subsidies for household in villages in Bhadra. Their current availability, unrestricted access, ease of extraction and market price make them appealing options to villages and therefore vulnerable to over –exploitation. While benefiting socio economically from access to forest resources, these villages suffer from serious human-wildlife conflicts unlike those in villages further from the protected area (Karanth K.D, 2003).

49. Weed control technology
Recent advances in weed control technology have changed how vegetational diversity can be managed in agroecosystems. Ths 2 year study (2001 and 2002, in Dealware, USA) assessed the impact of altering the timing of herbicide application in herbicide (glyphosate)- resistant field maize (cv. Dekalb 626RR) on the Eureopean maize borer, O. nubilalis, and on the benefical insects that prey on O.nubilalis egg masses,Treatments in this study were intended to allow weed presence in the field for varying periods of time, but the control of the weeds before crop yield was negatively affected. Effects on O.nubilalis oviposition were assessed directly by counting egg masses and indirectly, through assessment of the damage done to corn stalks resulting from O. Nubilalis infestations. The impact of weeds on the main generalist predators in this system was quantified through direct counts and predation trials on sentinel egg masses. End of season stalk comparisons showed no differences in O. nubilalis infestation levels among the treatments. Predation on sentinel egg masses showed fe significant differences among treatments, and predator densities were only rarely significantly different by treatment and showed no evident trends. This data suggest that under the conditions of this experiment, manipulating herbicide applications to minimize O. nubilalis damage is not a viable management technique in field maize (Wilson et al 2004).

50. California Reports
The mountain beaver (Aplodontia rufa) is a fossorial rodent species endemic to the Pacific Northwest and portions of California. This herbivoure inflicts millions of dollars of damage annually to forest seedling plantations. Currently, extensive trapping prior to planting is the most reliable method for reducing damage. With increasing restrictions placed on trapping, forest resource managers need alternative tools to minimize forest damage. This study assessed the potential of four toxicants registered for underground use to control mountain beaver, Zinc phosphide, diphacinone, chlorophacinone, and strychnine. Zinc phosphide and strychnine are acute toxicants, whereas diphaclinone and chlorophacinone are anticoagulants. Anticoagulants prevent the recycling of vitamin K in the body, which inhibits the production of clotting factors. Efficacy varied among treatments. Zinc phosphide and strychinine were avoided by mountain beaver. Pre-baiting marginally increased acceptance of strychnine, but did not alter mountain beaver acceptance of zinc phosphide. Diphacinone and chlorophacinone were both readily consumed, but only chlorophacinone was 100% effective after a 14-day baiting regime. Subsequently , they tested the effects of diet on the efficacy of diphacinone by varying the availability of food containing vitamin K, the anticoagulant antidote. Restricting access to potential source of vitamin K appeared to increase efficacy. They conclude that anticoagulants hold some promise as additional tools for managers to reduce mountain beaver populations with chlorophacinone showing the most promise. However, limitations to anticoagulant baits include the necessity of long-term baiting (greater than 10 days), a possible decrease in toxicity if baits contact moisture, and potential primary hazards (Arjo et al 2004).

51. Tanzanian study:
This paper presented an analysis of perceived patterns of wildlife crop-damage in relation to an on-farm assessment of damage in an area bordering the Selous Game Reserve (SGR) in south-eastern Tanzaina. Data from an attitudinal questionnaire survey of 202 households in four villages are used to examine local perceptions of wildlife crop-damage in terms of relative impact and which wildlife species were responsible. They explore the influence of wildlife crop-damage on attitudes to the adjacent game reserve. Data on the frequency of crop-damage events and estimated severity of impacts, recorded during a 6 month programme of crop –damage monitoring in one of the survey villages, are used to describe on-farm patterns of crop-damage. Comparison of the two data sets indicates a disjunction between the natures of the wildlife crop-damage conflict as perceived by local villagers, and as it actually occurs in the study area. This disjunction is discussed in relation to the effect of extreme damage events on local people’s views, the opportunity costs involved in guarding farm plots against crop-damage, and the tenure arrangements for wildlife that define the relationship with the state wildlife management authority (Gillingham et al 2003).

52.Asian Wild elephants:
Bahundangi village Development Committee (BVDC) was selected for crop damage assessment by Asian Wild Elephants (Elephas maximus). Out of 9 wards of BVDC, 8 wards were selected for household survey. Regression analysis were carried out to define crop raiding based on the distance of wards and wildlife habitat. Paired T-tests were carried out to compare the economic loss in 1999 and 2001. The number of the small and big herds were composed of 10-13 and 50-74 elephants, respectively. The big herd raided BVDC and Darjeeling district in India, whereas the small herds raided areas from Jhapa to Udayapur districts (about 200 km from East to West). Within one and half decades, elephants demolished 277 houses and killed 66 people in the districts; 23 elephants were killed. The damage due to elephants vary within wards. Economic loss of US$ 54 567.00 in 1999 and US$ 33 669.00 in 2001 were estimated. Farmers of VDC spend US$ 175.90 to US$ 228.60 to deter elephants. The paper suggests compensatory regulations as a solution to the problems ((Yadav 2003).

53.Reserve Reports:
Crop raiding patterns by wildlife at 10 villages along the eastern boundary of the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) in Kerala, Southern India were studied from December 1998 through March 1999. A total of 121 farmers were interviewed, and 39 instances of fresh crop raids were observed. Of these , 35 were on paddy fields, 3 on banana plantations and one on sugarcane. The Indian wild pig (Sus scrofa cristatus) was identified as the crop loss caused by this species was quantified. The effectiveness of an electric fence to prevent crop raids by wild pig was also assessed, comparing (1) mean group size of pigs, (2) extent of damage in m2, (3) actual and potential loss, and (4) frequency of wild pig raids. The actual loss was estimated at 257.19 kg ha-1 accounting for approximately 7% of the actual produce. The electric fence was not effective in preventing crop raiding by the wild pig. The number of wild pigs was not correlated with the extent of damage. Extent of damage might be a factor of time spent in the paddy field. Suggesting that wild pigs might raid paddy field for habitat requirements rather than for nutritional requirements. It is vital to understand crop raiding patterns prior to the implementation of control strategies (Jeyasingh et al 2003).

A study was conducted in December 1999 in four villages in Assam, India to: identify that nature of dependence of local communities on the forest resource, evaluate the pressures on the forest, especially due to wood collection; evaluate the socio-economic status of the villages and recommend solutions based on community participation. The villagers were 100% dependent on the forest for fuelwood and grazing, but there was only a 2% dependence for non-timber forest products. All four forest villages faced problems of crop damage by wild animals, particularly by elephants (Elephas maximus). The field visits and interviews revealed that 73% of the woodcutters or fuelwood collectors were men while only 10 and 16% were women and children, respectively. The majority of the woodcutters belonged to the 16-to 30 year old age group and most woodcutters collect wood a weekly basis. It was also found that the woodcutters collect 48.5 of wet wood and 35.5% of regenerating trees, which is the major factor leading to the destruction of the forest. Some of the problems related to the community based conservation approach include lack of communication with villagers, lack of coordination between departments, difficulties due to delays in salary payment, lack of field equipment, non-involvement of grassroots people in decision making, lack of communication between villagers and the district administration, short –term strategies, and lack of alternative livelihoods (Dilip et al, 2003).

54. German Reports:
Increasing quantities of specialized crops such as vegetables and fruit are being grown on a field scale in Germnay. This provides an attractive new food supply for game and other wildlife, and associated damage can be substantial. In a recent case heard by the provincial court in Verden, south-east of Bremen, the financial loss following fallow deer grazing on asparagus was assessed at some euro 72,000 over 10 years. This exceeded the annual stalking rent more than tenfold. Under existing laws, shooting tenants and associations are required to compensate farmers for game damage to field crops and to ensure protection of high-risk areas that form apart of shooting grounds. This, however, applied only to common crops such as cereals. In the case of specialized crops the grower is responsible for protecting them from wildlife and incurs the whole damage risk. If the holding does not include registered shooting grounds the grower has not shooting rights of his own. At present the legal definition of crops as "field" or "garden" is insufficiently precise. Asparagus, soft fruit, and vegetables have historically been classed as garden crops but are not longer exclusively grown as such, and clarification of their status is now needed (Haarstrich 2005).

55. India Reports:
This paper analyses the economics of biodiversity conservation in the context of a tropical forest ecosystem in the Western Ghats region of India, where coffee is the main competitor for land use. Using primary data covering a cross-section of coffee growers, the study notes that the opportunity costs of biodiversity conservation in terms of coffee benefits foregone are quite high. Even after including external costs due to wildlife damages and defensive expenditure to protect against wildlife, the NPVs and IRRs from coffee for all lad holding groups were high. Including external costs, these NPVs across different land holding groups ranged between Rs. 17 thousand to over Rs.106 thousand per acre at 12% discount rate, and the IRRs between 16.6% and 23%. Even if the expected benefits were to decrease by 20% and costs rise by a similar proportion, still the IRRs from coffee were quite high (19.5-20.1%). The study notes that the external costs accounted for between 7% and 15% of the total discounted costs of coffee cultivation, and smaller holdings proportionately incurred high external costs as compared to large holdings. The study also notes high transaction costs incurred by the growers to claim compensation for wildlife damages. Notwithstanding these disincentives, the study notes that the local community had a positive attitude towards biodiversity conservation and were willing to pay in terms of spending time for participatory biodiversity conservation. Taking elephants, a keystone and threatened species in Asia and the study region, for the contingent valuation survey, the study notes that the respondents are willing to spend 25.8 human days per household annually which works to over Rs.6003 per household per annum in terms of the income foregone. They also preferred a decentralized government institution for participatory biodiversity conservation (Ninan et al, 2005).

56. Uganda Reports:
Crop raiding by primates in particular and wild animals in general is a significant source of people forest conflict around the Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda. Crop loss to wild animals undermines local support for conservation efforts in this area. Patterns of primate crop raiding were studied over a period of 14 months in six villages (five adjacent to the Budongo Forest Reserve and one that is approximately 3,500 m from the forest edge). Data were collected via a questionnaire survey. Additional information was obtained from the relevant local government offices. Chimpanzees Pan troglodytes, baboons Paio anubis, other monkey, bush pigs Potamochoeus procus and porcupines Hystrix cristats were reported by farmers to be the major causes of crop losses by wild life. Of farmers, 73% reported suffering crop damage caused by primates, and 79% considered baboons to be the most destructive of all crop raiding species. Drought, insect pests, poor sowing, plant disease and accidental fires were other sources of crop losses to farmers, though the risk of crop damage particularly by primates is perceived as the most serious potential cause of losses. Using chimpanzees as a case study, patterns of crop damage across the year are compared with seasonal fluctuations in availability of wild foods (Tweheyo et al 2005).

57. Non-lethal methods of prevention:
There are increasing demands, for non-lethal methods of resolving foraging conflict between people and a wild range of wildlife species. Badgers make good models for studying human-wildlife conflict resolution, and they epitomose the circumstances driving research in this field; they cause millions of pounds worth of crop damage each year in England and Wales, and yet they are protected legally from culling. In anticipation of future field conditioning trials, we set out here to identify the minimum concentration of the repellent ziram for inhabiting badger damage to maize . They believe this to be the first study to investigate the dose dependent effects of a repellent on a wild free –ranging population of mammals. They adapted a multi-choice design to test the acceptability to free ranging badgers of maize cobs treated topically with a range of ziram concentrations (0.5.3% w/w). We used video surveillance to obtain detailed behavioural observations of individually identifiable animals. The seven badgers that ate maize during the trial did not discriminate between treatments on the first night on which they fed. However, on subsequent nights, most of these badger either failed to return to experimental sites or returned without feeding. These individuals visited and fed throughout the study, and demonstrated a clear negative dose-dependent response that reached plateau at a ziram concentration of 1.3% (w/w). This effect was evident in both individual behavioural data and the proportion of cobs suffering badger damage . Our aim was to identify an optimal (threshold) concentration of ziram for deterring badger feeding on maize; we conclude that maize cobs should be treated at approximately 1.3-1.5% 9w/w), by topical application of a 10% (w/v) ziram paste. A field experiment of similar design could provide a model starting point for research with other species, repellents and food substrates (Baker et al 2005).

58. Ecosystem services:
The ecosystem services provided by mangroves are often ignored in the ongoing process of mangrove conversion. Services provided by the Bhitarkanika mangrove ecosystem in India and estimated cyclone damage avoided in three selected villages, taking the cyclone of 1999 as a reference point , were valued by assessing the socio-economic status of the villages, the cyclone damage to houses, livestock, fisheries, trees and other assets owned by the people, and the level and duration of flooding. Eleven variables were used to compare damage in the villages, one protected by mangroves, one unprotected by mangroves, and the third possessing an embankment on its seaward side. Attitude surveys were carried out in 10% of the households in 35 villages located in the Bhitarkanika Conservation Area to assess local peoples perceptions regarding the storm protection function of mangroves and their attitude towards mangrove forests generally. In the mangrove protected village, variables had either the lowest values for adverse factors (such as damage to houses), or the highest values for positive factors (such as crop yield). The loss incurred per household was greatest (US$ 153.74) in the village that was not sheltered by mangroves but had an embankment, followed by the village that was neither in the shadow of mangroves or the embankment (US$ 44.02) and the village that was protected by mangrove forests (US$ 33.31). The local people were aware of and appreciated the functions performed by the mangrove forests in protecting their lives and property from cyclones, and were willing to cooperate with the forest department in mangrove restoration (Badola et al 2005).

59. Willow decline:
Populations of braver and willow have not thrived in riparian environments that are heavily browsed by livestock or ungulates, such as elk. The interaction of beaver and elk herbivory may be an important mechanism underlying beaver and willow declines in this competitive environment. They conducted a field experiment that compared the standing crop of willow three years after simulated beaver cutting on paired plants with and without intense elk browsing (~85% utilization rate). Simulated beaver cutting with intense elk browsing produced willow that was small (biomass and diameter) and short, with far fewer, but longer, shoots and a high percentage of dead biomass. In contrast, simulated beaver, cutting without elk browsing produced willow that was large, tall, and leafy, with many more, but shorter, shoots (highly branched) and a lower percentage of dead biomass. Total stem biomass after three years was 10 times greater on unbowsed plants than on browsed plants. Unbowsed plants recovered 84% of their per-cut biomass after only two growing seasons, whereas browsed plants recovered only 6%. Thus, the interaction of beaver cutting and elk browsing strongly suppressed the standing crop of willow. They predict that a lack of willow suitable as winter food for beaver can cause beaver populations to decline, creating a feedback mechanism that reduces beaver and willow populations. Thus, intense herbivory by ungulates or livestock can distrupt beaver willow mutualisms that naturally occur in less competitive environments (Baker et al 2005).

60. Conservation preservation:
In an efforts to attenuate human-wildlife conflict and promote conservation of charismatic megafauna, compensation programs for wildlife damages have been implemented in many countries. Compensating pastoralists and farmers for damage caused by wildlife reduces bunting pressure on wild animals populations . However, it can also lead to a decrease in efforts to prevent damage and exacerbate conflicts with wildlife. Furthermore, compensation programs increase the return to agriculture and can therefore be viewed as a subsidy toward crop and livestock production. Such subsidies can trigger agricultural expansion (and habitat conversion), an inflow of agriculture producers, and intensification of agricultural production. Each of these impacts is shown to have potentially adverse effects on the wildlife population that compensation intendeds to favor. In some circumstances, the net effect on the wildlife stock could be negative. This calls for a careful assessment of local ecological and economic conditions before compensation is implemented. Incentive mechanisms that are directly tied to conservation outcomes (e.g. payments to locals based on the size of the wildlife population) should be considered instead of compensation programs(Bulte et al 2005).

This paper examines the environmental and economic consequences of introducing a programme to compensate peasants of a small economy for the (crop) damage caused by wildlife . It shows that the widely held belief that compensation induces wildlife conservation may be erroneous. In a partially open economy, compensation can lower the wildlife stock and result in a net welfare loss for local people. In an open economy, compensation can trigger wildlife extinction and also reduce welfare. The conditions leading to a reduction of the wildlife stock are identified and the implications for current and planned compensation programmes are discussed (Rondeau et al 2003).

61. Beaver Mountain, utawah:
In 1994, ground fire ignited in forests of Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii var, glauca, on Beaver Mountain, Utawah, USA. The Douglas-fir beetle, Dendrocotonus, pseudotsugae, attack a range of moderately fire-injured host conifers in 1995 . Logistic regression models run for 1995 data illustrated that one year after the fire event, the Douglas-fir beetle selected and attacked large-diameter Douglas-fir with 60-80% bole char,60-80% crown volume scorch, and 50-70% probability of mortality due to fire. In 1996, beetle preference shifted to smaller-diameter trees with lighter fire injury, because most large, fire damaged conifers were colonized by beetles in 1995. Although beetle populations did not reach outbreak proportions outside the fire boundary, host selection shifted to green trees in 1997 along the burn perimeter. Log linear analysis indicated that increased brood production was conditioned by increased diameter and moderate fire damage to the trees ( Cunningham, 2005).

62. European range:
Since 1980, populations of wild board (Sus scrofa) have increased over the species’ entire European range. This increase had led to conflicts because wild boars cause crop damage amounting to several million U.S dollar every year. Wildlife management agencies promote and financially support 3 major methods to reduce the loss (1) intensive harvest, (2) supplemental feeding in forests to bait animals for easier shooting and to distract them from agricultural fields, and (3) building electrical fences around crops at risk. Our objective was to investigate how effective these methods were in reducing field damage by wild boars. Based on data from 44 hunting territories in the Canton Thurgan, Switzerland, we related damage frequency to harvest success, supplemental feeding, and fencing effort by means of 2 multiple regression analyses. The analysis of mean damage frequency among territories (averaged over 3 year) and changes in damage frequency within territories from 1994 to 1996 showed that only hunting reduced damage by wild boars. Because our results question the effectiveness of wild board management practices and wild board populations and damage are increasing throughout Europe, we suggest that control efforts and funds be reconsidered. Because only hunting seems to clearly reduce wild board damage, we suggest more emphasis be put on the development and introduction of new harvest models among local hunting teams (Geisser et al 2004).

63. Sustainable wildlife management:
For the sustainable management of small mammals, fertility control may be used in the future. Little is known about what proportions of females need to be sterilized to achieve an impact on population size and what compensatory processes may act on the population level. We tested that impact of surgical sterilization of zero, 25, 50 and 75% of females on the population dynamics and demography of enclosed populations of rice field rats (Rattus argentiventer) and damage to rice crop. Sterilizing 50% of female founder (6 of 12) decreased population size at the end of the breeding season by about 50%. We used a simulation model, based on the breeding biology of the rice field rat in the field and in the control enclosures, to generate the expected dynamics of the enclosure populations. The results suggested that compensation occurred in the enclosures where 75% of female founder (9 of 12) had been sterilized. We detected a slight tendency for 50% higher numbers of recent uterine scars in fertile founder females in the 50% and 75% treatments versus 25% treatments and controls (p=0.198). The primary demographic mechanism for compensation was higher survival of young rats in enclosures where 75% of females were sterilized. However, compensation only partially offset the decrease in population size. We found no convulsive evidence that the reproductive output of F1 generation females was higher when large proportions of female founders were sterilized. Early in the breeding season, the per capita damage to rice plants in populations without sterilized rice field rats was increased. Our results suggest that the sterilization of.50% of females in rice field rat populations can reduce rat population growth and rat damage to rice crops ((Jacob et al 2004).

64. Farm Management Practices:
The impacts of a range of farm-magement practices on house mouse (Mus domesticus) populations were tested in a large replicated field study in a complex irrigated farming system in southern New South Wales, Australia. An advisory panel, made up of farmers, extension officers, industry representatives and scientists developed a series of best practice farm management actions to minimize the impact of mice.Twelve experimental sites were split into six treated sites, where farmers were encouraged to conduct the recommended practices, and six untreated sites , where farmers were encouraged to conduct the recommended practices, and six untreated sites, where farmers conducted their normal farming practices. Mouse abundance was generally low to moderate for the 4 year project (5-60% adjusted trap success). They found significant reductions in population abundance of mice on treated sites when densities were moderate , but no differences when densities were low. Biomass of weeds and grasses around the perimeter of crops were significantly lower on treated sites because of application of herbicide sprays and grazing by sheep. We could not detect any significant difference in mouse damage to crops between treated and untreated sites; however , levels of damage were low (<5%). Yields of winter cereals and rice crops were significantly higher on treated sites by up to 40%. An analysis of benefits and costs of conducting, farming practices on treated sites compared with untreated sites howed a 2:1 benefit to cost ration for winter cereals, 9:1 for rice and 4:1 for soybeans (Brown et al 2004).

65. Physical and biotic effects:
Physical and biotic effects of straw mulch applied at two different times to potatoes and watermelons were assessed in field trials over 2 yr. Plots with straw mulch generally and lower soil temperatures and higher soil moisture than control (weedy, no straw) plots. When straw was applied at planting weeds were suppressed, whereas straw applied after cultivation 4 wk after planting had less effect on weeds. In 2000, potatoes with straw at planting had fewer potato leafhoppers, Empoasca fabae (Harris) ( and less associated plant damage) and more colonizing Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), adult than the other treatments. Subsequent Colorado potato beetle egg mass and larval numbers, however, were not higher in this treatment. Subsequent Colorado potato beetle egg mass and larval members, however, were not higher in this treatment, possibly because of the higher numbers of predators in these plots as assessed by pitfall beetle adults, but by midsummer there were more Colorado potato beetle larvae in the control plots than in the straw plots, again possibly due to differential predation. The few pests observed in the watermelon plots were not affected by the straw at planting (in which weeds were suppressed) in 2000. In 2001, when melons were planted earlier in the spring, melon plant biomass at 4 wk was lower in plots with straw at planting than in the other treatments, probably due to reduced soil temperatures. Thus, for potatoes, straw may be useful to control weeds and enhance predator numbers, but insect pests may still require control. In melons, straw should be used only if the crop is planted after the soil is sufficiently warm (Jhonson et al 2004) .

66. Damages in England:
Characteristics of damage of agricultural land caused by a small feral population of wild board Sus scrofa in Sourthern England were studied. Fifty-eight reports of rooting damage to grassland and one of rooting in a cereal crop were recorded between December 1997 and November 2002. Most reports (74%) concerned damage in January , February or March. Damage mainly occurred in fields adjacent to woodland, but there was no evidence of selection between different grassland types. The severity of damage was assessed and potential options for reducing damage in the future are suggested ((Wilson 2004).

This study models net welfare impact on producers who receive utility from on-farm wildlife populations that are not costlessly diposable. Wildlife damage levels where net benefits are zero indicate producers’ maximum willingness to pay for on-farm wildlife. An empirical model is developed and applied to 1998 data for 241 field crop producers in Ontario, Canda., Results suggest that the net welfare loss from damage is approximately half of the value of the yield loss for those with damage.In aggregate, however, on farm wildlife generates net benefits to producers that outweigh costs by about 10:1. The distribution of net benefits is highly skewed across producers (Rollins et al 2004).

67. Field experiences:
Field experiments were used to test whether intercropping sunflower (Helianthus annus) in organic vegetables would (i) attract insect –eating birds and encourage them to (2) forage in greater numbers and (3) for more time in cropped fields. Cropped areas with sunflower treatments of one or two rows per 0.4 ha exhibited significantly greater mean abundance of insectivorous birds than did control plots, across a variety of crop types. Additionally, both mean numbers of individual birds foraging on insect prey and mean insect foraging time per hour in crops were significantly greater in plots with sunflower rows than without. Birds actively pursuing prey in study plots consumed economically important pest species and did not damage crops during the study. The addition of sunflower intercrops proved to be an effective habitat modification for augmenting avian insectivore numbers and insect-foraging time in organic vegetables (Jones et al 2006).

68. Bhuton Reports :
The attitudes and feelings of concerning conservation policies and wildlife conflict affect their behaviour, and understanding this is important in involving local people in conservation planning and decision making processes. This paper examines these important issues in Jigme Singye Wangehuck National Park, located in central Bhutan. A survey of 274 household was carried out to asses farmers’ perceptions of the influence of Park management policies and protection regimes on traditional resource uses, and their attitudes towards the Park and conservation policies set forth in the Forest and Nature Conservation Act of 1995, integrated conservation development programmes (ICDPs) and wildlife conservation, and determine how demographic and socioeconomic variables influence these attitudes. Among local farmers, 52.2% disliked the Park and the Conservation Act, and 67.5% supported exterminating problem wildlife. Negative attitudes were linked to loss of resource use right, livestock depredation and crop damage, lack of compensation strategies and exclusion of farmers from the Park;s planning processes. However, 76.3% of the respondents appreciated the Park’s development programmes, the positive attitudes associated with an expectation that significant economic benefits would be available from ICDPs sponsored by the Park. Empowerment of local communities associated with monetary benefits from non-timber forest products and compensation for loss of crops and livestock were emphasized by more than 70% of the respondents. These attitudes were related to age and literacy of the respondents, number of livestock owned and size of land holdings. Though important to the future of Bhutan’s parks, study results also have wider applicability to conservation professional throughout the developing world for resolving human land use conflicts and involving local farmers in the protection of nature (Wang et al 2006).

In the protected areas of Bhutan, crop damage by wildlife impacts the livelihoods of local agropastoralists. We interviewed a stratified –random sample of 274 farmers living in the Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park in an attempt to better understand and manage growing concerns. Most of the farmers interviewed suffered major financial losses annually due to crop damage (rice, wheat and maize) by wild pigs (Sus scrofa), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), macaques (Macaca mulatta), and sambars (Cervus univolor). All respondents reported crop losses to wild animals, and wild pig was the most common cause (97%). Farmers responded by implementing nonlethal methods such as guarding, fencing and performing religious rituals to protect their crops. Growers blamed the park’s conservation policies for the high level of reported losses. Crop damage, especially by macaques, increased after establishment of the park in 1993 and implementation of the Forest and Nature Conservation Act of 1995. Management actions should focus on increasing tolerance among farmers and reducing severe losses caused by wild pigs and macaques ( Wang et al 2006).

69. Mayamur Experiences:
Declaration of forests as Protected Areas, implementation of Wildlife Protection Act, denial to/restriction on natural resources to the depending people coupled with degradation/fragmentation of habitat lead to conflict between interests. A questionnaire survey was conducted among the villagers of the selected settlement in Marayur Forest Range for information on matters related to socio-economic status and wildlife conservation. About 10% of the household in each settlement were selected randomly. Most of the people (77.78%) have their own lands and the major source of income is cultivation. According to the respondent’s paddy, sugar cane, plantain and vegetables were the highly raided crops by wild animals, Gaur, Elephant and Wild boar were held responsible by the respondents for most of the damagers to crops. Guarding combined with ordinary fencing was the protection method employed by majority of the cultivators in Marayur. The reasons for crop damage and compensation details were discussed (Veeramani et al 2004).

70. Japanese experiences:
Direct sowing of rice is increasing in Japan as a means of reducing farm labour. Seed damage by birds, including the Oriental Turtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis, has, however, prevented the spread of direct sowing. An experiment with five replications was conducted from 1 May to 12 September 2000 in an outdoor aviary to determine whether damage by Oriental Turtle Doves could be reduced by providing barley as an alternative field. The aviary was divided with nets into four plots and assigned to four treatments of 2x2 about feed provision and experimental period. In the experiment, the alternative feed was either "provided" or "not provided",, while during the experimental period, the treatments were assigned as either "early" (doves were introduced into a plot right after the sowing and kept there until germination) or "late" (doves were introduced on the day of germination and kept there for the same number of days as in the "early’ treatment). Damage was evaluated by comparing the number of seedlings with that in enclosures set inside the plots. In the "early" treatment, the number of seedlings in the alternative feed treatment did not differ from that in the enclosures, but in the non-alternative feed treatment, the number of seedlings was significantly fewer than that in the enclosures. In the "late treatment, the number of seedlings did not occur after germination. These results showed that the damage by doves ceases at germination, and can be reduced by providing an alternative feed ( (Yamaguchiet al 2006).

71. Bolina reports:
Damage caused by wildlife to human economic activities represents a serious problems to conservation efforts. Conflict resolution efforts are particularly complex in Bolivian protected areas, which generally harbour human populations that settled there before the establishment of the protected area. They carried out a study that estimated wildlife damage to crops using paired enclosures and open (control) fields, in a protected area in Bolivia, that was primarily montane forest. We compared the performance (proportion of attacked plants and total crop yield) of three crop species within and outside of the enclosures, Simultaneously, we recorded the wildlife species that visited crop fields by means of track plots, and identified their share in the damage. The damage was significantly higher in control fields for two out of three crop species. Total yield was higher, though not significantly, in exclosures for all three crop species. Brown agouties (Dasyprocta variegate) was the most frequent wildlife species in crop fields and was responsible for some crop damage; however, collared peccaries (Tayassu tajacu) caused complete crop loss in two cases. We discuss our results from a broad management perspective and propose that conservation efforts, especially in Bolivia and other third world countries, should consider both applying methods to reduce wildlife damage and direct or indirect economic compensation. The latter could be achieved through the commercial use of non-threatened local wildlife species ( Perez et al 2006).

72. Fox damages:
Flying foxes come into conflict with fruit growers when they raid fruit crops in response to limited native food resources. A standard technique used by fruit growers to deter flying-foxes has been to shoot the animals as they enter the orchard. This activity has been regulated by the National Parks and wildlife service (NPWS) in New South Wales, Australia, since the protection of flying-foxes in 1986. A NPWS policy was developed on this issue in 1998. It provides for licences to be issued to harm a limited number of protected species by gunshot only. The policy does not cover threatened species. The recent change in the conservation status of the Grey-headed flying –fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) from protected to vulnerable means that the NPWS policy must be adapted to address damage mitigation of a threatened species. The NPWS has considered a number of alternatives in its management strategy, including ending licenses harm to flying foxes , issuing licences under the Threatened Species legislation, and encouraging farmers to prepare property management plans. The preferred NPWS position is to continue to issue licences under the National Park and Wildlife Act 1974 for a further 3 years, during which time farmers are expected to take all reasonable means to adopt non lethal deterrent strategies. Important aspects of this new policy was ensuring that licensed damage does not constitute a threat to the long term survival of the Grey headed flying fox, and improving compliance with the policy so that all harm may be quantified and the impact on the state-wide population properly assessed and managed (Walples K, 2002).

73. Madeira Island , Portugal Reports:
This study was conducted over a two year period in the north west of Madeira Island (Macaronesian Atlantic Islands, Portugal). It investigates the relationship between fruiting patterns in the indigenous forest and the use by the Madeira laurel pigeon of forest habitats and cultivated areas. Habitat use observations were carried out using line-transects in forest sites where the availability of fruit ( the most important element of the diet) was assessed. The use of agricultural fields was measured indirectly by the assessment of the damage caused to crops. The findings provided strong evidence that bird movements and shifts in abundance are related to fruit stage and availability. The use of fruits is mostly opportunistic but when many species are available, selection was observed. From an ecological perspective, our findings indirectly confirm a high concordance between pigeon diet, studied by microhistological techniques, and habitat use. The use of crops also seems to be mostly opportunistic and is governed by the birds’ movements within the adjacent forest. It is hypothesized that fruit phenology will influence the use of agricultural areas only to the extent that it governs such movements; there is no strong evidence that crops are attacked only when the availability of natural foods is low. Our results suggest that the current management strategy for the forest is adequate for the conservation of this pigeon but that the conservation value of forest edges should be redefined. It is also proposed that crop damage may be reduced by identifying the proximate factors, which lead to the use of specific fields(Oliveira et al 2006).

74. Feral Hog (Sus Scrofa) invasions:
A field study was conducted in Texas,USA, in 2003 to determine the consequence of feral hog (Sus scrofa) invasions in several ecoregions of Texas. The observations, experiences and action of landowners and managers concerning feral hogs on their property were examined by using purposive sampling of landowners and managers who fit one or more 3 selection criteria. Landowners and managers were either sent a self administered, mail –out questionnaire or given a copy of the questionnaire . during pesticides applicator workshops. There were 775 survey participants. The effective response rate from those landowners and managers who received a mailed questionnaire was 62% (n=294). Nearly all (95%, n=491) of the pesticide applicator workshop participants turned in a completed questionnaire. Sampling error based on the farms (includes ranches) in Taxas and in each region was + or-3%, alpha=0.05. The majority (74%)of respondents were ranchers and 18% were farmers. Most respondents felt that feral hogs came from neighbor’s property and were an agricultural pest. Rooting, wallowing and crop damage were the major forms of damage caused by feral hogs. The average economic loss due to hog damage, over the lifetime ownership of the land by the respondent, was $7515.Hog control was an incidental process. The average cost for hog control over the lifetime ownership of the land by the respondent was $2631. There was strong support for programmes related to feral hog management and control, but only half of the survey participants responded to the question. The average quiz score of 11.5 indicated that respondents could correctly respond to, 50% of the 26 questions. Region was found to have an effect on all questions tested except one. Management implications included the need for educational programmes about feral hogs, how landowners can make better use of feral hogs on their property, ongoing education efforts about feral hogs and the impact of this study on the public policy and decision making process (Adams et al 2005).

Compared to a survey conducted in 1982, 17 of the 32 (53%) populations are extinct or have dropped to levels so low that local hunters have failed to encounter the species in recent years. This indicates a rapid population decline. They hypothesize that this loss is primarily caused by a decline in suitable habitat, especially stands of teak Tectona grands forest or similar forest plantations, and by high hunting pressure. Competition from and hybridization with the Eurasian wild boar Sus scrofa may be further threats to S.verrucosus. Rapidaction is needed to prevent extinction in the wild. We recommended effective protection of selected S.verrucosus population, lobbying of the Government to give protected status to S.verrucosus, conducting ecological research and investigating crop damage issues, and establishment of conservation breeding programmes (Semiadi et al 2006).

75. Nursery management practices:
Integrated Pest Management is a system that combines cultural, biological and chemical technologies to reduce insect, fungal and weed populations to levels below those that result in economic damage. Nursery managers in the sourthern. United states currently use many practices to control pests of southern pine seedlings. Over the last three decades, improvements in chemical, cultural, and biological pest control practices have increased seed efficiency (defined as the number of plantable seedlings produced divided by the number of pure live seed sown) and reduced the percentage of production costs associated with pest control. As crop values increase, the economic thresholds for applying control measures decrease. However, since the statistical power of most trials in bareroot nurseries is low, the likelihood of experiments that detect "real" treatment difference (e.g those that consistently increase seed efficiency to the point, where economic returns are affected) will be low. This paper describes some current practices in southern pine nurseries and provides some economic injury levels for various pest control treatments(South et al 2006).

76. Low Forest damages:
During the past several decades, an overaboundance of sika deer has caused dramatic increase in agricultural and forestry damage, and has severely affected natural vegetation and ecosystems in many areas of Japan as a result of heavy foraging pressure. In National Parks and nature reserves, where conservation of natural environments is the highest priority, managing overabundant deer is an imminent and major concern.. Sika deer, which were once locally extirpated, re-colonized the Shiretoko Peninsula in the 1970’s. The population has been increasing since the mid 1980s , resulting in chronic effects on the natural vegetation of forests and grasslands. Although severe climatic conditions and scarcity of food resources during the winter may regulate the deer population in Shiretoko National Park, the deer are able to sustain a high density due to the high female survival rate as well as a high intrinsic rate of increase. The population can be reduced only by heavy snowfalls that are severe enough to kill females.

Therefore, natural processes alone are unable to alleviate the impacts of deer on vegetation. Unfortunately , from the currently available data, we cannot determine whether the irruption of sika deer in the NP is caused by socioeconomic activities or by ecological process. It is imperative to establish a comprehensive management plant for sika deer that considers differences in land use status and conservation purposes both in Shiretoko NP and in peripheral areas. Also, vegetation monitoring is essential for evaluating the extinction risk of plant species and communities. If habitat restoration and population control of sika deer are to be implemented in and around the NP, these measures must be closely linked with deer and vegetation monitoring results to adaptively manage sika deer and ecosystems in Shiretoko NP ( Tokida et al 2004).

An account is given of the emerging vegetation-raiding status of golden langur (Trachypithecus geei), one of the endangered and restricted range species in fragmented forest pockets in western Assam, India. It was found that the golden langur causes maximum damage to Gmelina arborea trees planted by cillagers, as this crop is one of its natural food item. Although the damage caused at this stage is not considerable and has yet to cross the economic threshold level, this emerging ecological problem needs special attention from the point of view of future conservation and management efforts (Rekha et al 2005).

77. Strychnine baiting:
Underround strychnine baiting is a common technique used to suppress pocket gopher (Thomomys sp). Populations until seedlings are established. Non-targets risks from underground baiting can still occur if strychnine-baited animals die aboveground. Accordingly, the fate of strychnine-baited carcasses of four small mammal species, Thomomys, Mus, Microtus, and Peromyscus, were documented during four trials on the Rogue River National Forest. We found no difference among species and type of damage, either insect or predator, during the four trials. However, survival differed between species in two trials where fewer Thomomys carcasses survived until completion of the study. We also examined the risk to tertiary non-targets from insects collected at the sites. Strychnine concentration among insect groups from treated carcasses differed with Diptera larvae and ants consistently containing higher concentrations. Even with high strychnine concentration (0.2756 mi cro g/g), risk assessments showed negligible tertiary risks from consuming strychnine-laced insects ( (Arjo et al 2006).

78. Canadian experiences:
In many agricultural regions of Canada, the most common remnant natural areas are field boundaries, these habitats being linear features or narrow areas located beside cropland. Boundaries are often perceived to harbour noxious weeds, insects and birds that could potentially damage crops or interfere with crop production. Therefore, boundary habitat may be degraded by pesticides, fertilizers, tillage, wind and water exposure, excessive burning, haying and grazing. One conservation objective is to work with land owners to retain and protect existing boundaries, a goal that could be achieved more readily with evidence of benefits and practical ways of managing field margins. Direct services provided by boundary habitats include control of soil and water erosion , protection (e.g, from agro-chemical) of surface water used by livestock and people, and provision of forage for livestock through grazing or haying. Boundaries serve as refugia for plants, insects or other animals that are either neutral or beneficial to agriculture. Native plants often are more common farther from field edges and in habitats abating pastures and hayfields, whereas weeds are more abundant in boundaries adjacent to intensively managed agricultural fields, possibly as a result of competitive advantages or outright loss of native species created by disturbance and agrochemical use. Wildlife has been studied in several countries and under different agricultural settings, but survival and reproductive rates of animals occurring in boundaries are not well known. Relationships between boundary width, height and composition and wildlife value, carbon storage, and protection of surface water are poorly quantified. Answers to these questions will help land owners, conservation agencies and policy-makers make better decisions about sustainable farm practices (Clark et al 2005).

79. Wild turkey Losses:
The wild turkey (Meleagris galopavo) repatriation in the USA and Canada has been a major achievement in wildlife management . This success has led to increasing wild turkey populations and calls to wildlife professionals complaining about wild turkeys causing agriculture damage. A mail survey was distributed to state, federal and provincial agencies that respond to wildlife crop damage complaints. Survey recipients were asked to report the number of crop damage complaints and their severity received from farmers, how many of these complaints were investigated and by what means, how often damage was confirmed when investigated, the severity of actual damage observed and how frequently the damage was caused by other species. They wanted to compare farmer’s perceptions of crop depredation levels to actual damage and the economic impact relative to specific agricultural crops. A total of 23 different crops were reported as having confirmed damage caused by wild turkeys. In the majority of these cases (93%) damage was reported as light. In 45% of inspected cases, investigators reported that most of the damage (76-100%) was caused by another species. Our results provide wildlife managers with an understanding of the nature of crop depredation relative to the wild turkey (Teftt et al2005).

80. Mycoaster coypus damages:
Introduced coypus (Mycoastor coypus) (nutria) damage crops and natural vegetation and undermine riverbanks. Voypu was controlled using case traps to protect vegetation in 3 wetlands in the park of the rivers Po and Orba in northwestern Italy. A field experiment was conducted in a natural reserve in Valenza (NRV), Italy, from 1998 to 2000, to control coypu. The park wardens in NRV were involved in approximately 18 man days of work annually and the cost was 1518 Euros ($ 1867) per year. From 2001, a controm programme was conducted in 3 areas. Removal dednsities (0.06- 1.3 animal/ha) sugeested that 2 trapping periods conducted annually were adequate to slow down coypu population increase. The recovery of yellow waterlily (Nuphar lutea) in 3 plots and the colonization of new ponds by vegetation indicated that coypu were maintained at a level sustainable for vegetation development (Bertolino et al 2005).

81. Cold temperatures and wildlife:
Cold temperatures and wildlife (e.g deer ) predations are the two reasons for seed loss at Vallonia Nursery in Indiana, USA. The use of wheat straw mulch in reducing damage to seed from cold temperatures, loss of seed to wildlife predation and delayed emergency in early spring when frost is likely to occur, was evaluated. Experiment showed that a combination of cover crops (rye and wheat) and straw mulch effectively protect autumn-sown hardwood seeds (e.g Quercus alba, Carya, Juglans and Corylus) from cold temperature damage and predation. Detailed steps on the proper use of mulches are discussed. A tabulated list of hardwood seed species susceptible to cold injury when autumn planted at Vallonia Nurse is given. These species were grouped into three: very susceptible, moderately susceptible and generally not susceptible to cold injury. The advantages of removing straw mulch with fire are briefly discussed. Finally, the costs and benefits of using straw mulches are analysed and discussed (Wichman et al 2005).

82. Visual Monitoring:
In 2001 and 2002, the elephant, Loxodonta Africana, herds of Alfakoara in the hunting Zone of Djona (Zone Cynegetique de la Djona, ZCD) in Benin were visually monitored to study their migration, and 500 pellets were collected to analyse their diet. A socio-economic survey covering the village of Alfakoara and its surroundings was achieved near three different socio-professional categories (farmers, ranchers/transhumant producers, and hunters). During the May-September rain season and the October-December crop-ripening season, the elephant herds invaded the community lands, increasing their home ranges outside the reserves. The diet included 71 vegetation species during the rain season and 30 during the dry season. During both seasons the most eaten species were: shrubs (Piliostigma thonningii, Strychnos spinosa), small trees (Cassia sieberiana) and trees (Acacia sieberiana, Balanites aegyptiaca, Diospyros mespiloformis, Adansonia digitata). The results of the survey show that the human-elephant relations in the ZCD were relatively satisfactory, despite damages to crops (mainly corn, zea mays, followed by cotton, Gossypium sp., and to a lesser extent, groundnut, Arachis hypogaea, and millet, Panicum miliaceum), because the riparian populations of Alfakoara are conscious that the elephants are part of their "patrimony", and that they must be conserved at all costs. The keen interest of the populations to adhere to the forest management through the AVIGREF (Association Villageoise de Gestion des Reserves de Faune) and during rescuing operations of accidentally –stuck elephant calves, testifies their effective will to conserve the fauna in general, and particularly the elephants of the site, However, the incessant damage cause by the elephants in the fields of the riparian population and the physical risks they face are also factors that cause irritation among the inhabitants. These factors thus may modify the otherwise serene human-elephant rapports in this zone ((Imorou et al 2004).

83. Myanmar’s biodiversity.:
An effective protected area system is essential for the long-term conservation of Myanmar’s biodiversity. This study examined the attitudes of 2915 residents in 97 communities around three protected areas (Pas) in upper Myanmar:Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park in the western mountains, Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuary in the hills bordering the Chindwin and Uru rivers, and Chattin Wildlife Sanctuary in the central dry zone. Logistic regression indicated a positive attitude toward the Pas was most highly correlated with a perception of conservation benefits and benefits resulting from management of the areas. Attitude was also significantly correlated with a perception of extraction benefits, conflicts with PA staff and crop damage by wildlife. Socioeconomic variables were less powerful than perceptions in predicting attitude and, unlike perception, their effects varied among the areas.

The much greater effect of perceptions, especially positive ones, on people’s attitudes indicates that understanding perceptions is important to improving the relationship between local residents and these PAs . This finding underscores the fact that a focus on conflicts to understand people’s attitudes towards Pas may undervalue or miss critical positive perceptions that people hold. Understanding local residents’ perceptions of Pas makes possible the creation of strategic, place-based management strategies that build on people’s positive perceptions and mitigate their negative perceptions (Allendorf et al 2006).

84. Japanese macaques:
The current crop damage by Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) was examined and the control methods that are employed were evaluated. The frequency of crop damage was highest in winter, followed by summer, autumn, and apring. Wild Japanese macaques primarily consumed leafy and stem vegetables (e.g .Welsh onion and spinach) in winter and spring, fruit vegetables (e.g pumkin and cumcumber) in summer, and fruits (e.g. Japanese persimmon and Chinese gooseberry) in autumn. In winter , the distance between the forest edge and farmland areas receiving crop damage increase, and the maximum distance recorded was 180 m. Japanese macaques also fed on crop residue and waste in winter. These observations suggest low food availability in the forest habitat; thus, to reduce crop damage in winter, food availability in the forest habitat should be augmented. Moreover, to reduce crop damage in farmland, it is necessary to properly dispose of raw crop waste and crop residue, and it is critical to educate the local communities. There was no management strategy to limit crop damage in most areas in which damage occurred. Damage prevention, by constructing net walls to exclude macaques, was exercised at only eight sites (2.9%). However, of the 47 days when wild Japanese macaques were observed in residential areas or surrounding farmland, residents chased them off on only 18 days (38.3%), and the average number of people who participated in this artificial exclusion management procedure was only 1.61 per event. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a cooperative management system that includes the participation of women from local communities to reduce crop damage (Yoshida et al 2006).

85. Transhumance in the area:
This study aimed to evaluate the status of transhumance in the area of the"W"park. It showed that the movement routes lead to the territories located in or bordering the Sahelo-Soudanian zone or the bordering villages, and either lead into the W park, or crossed it in the direction of the South-Borgou (Benin) and Togo. The occupation of pastoral areas in the peripheral zones by crop fields and game reserves, hunting zones and the concern of avoiding browsing damage to standing crop on one hand the fields, the abundance of the feed resources and the "freedom of access" on the other hand made W park the principal transhumance zone destination of cattle. This illegal cattle grazing in the park is considered to be incompatible with the objectives of the wildlife conservation. It causes the degradation of the habitat, a competition with wild animals for feed competition and a health risk between cattle and wildlife. In order to reduce the recurring conflicts which oppose the transhumant herders, the foresters and the farmers, a process of dialogue between all involved was implemented that led to the development of a regional strategy for transhumance management around the W park (Kangone et al 2006).

86. Willow (Salix) damages:
Willow (Salix) communities are important components of riparian ecosystems. However, browsing by livestock and wildlife species can negatively impact willow size and abundance, and make restoration efforts difficult. A common solution has been fencing of affected willows to exclude ungulates, but fencing is expensive and may not complement desirable land management strategies. An alternative to fencing is the use of structures that limit access to streamside willows, without excluding ungulate access to the entire riparian zone. We examined the use of felled western juniper trees (Juniperus occidentalis Hook) placed over streamside willow shrubs. Four replicates of felled western juniper treatments (covered) and nonconvered treatments were applied to a 1.2 km length of stream in southeastern Oregon. Willows (,2m) within treatments areas were censused, tagged, examined for evidence of browse-use, and measured for maximum height during August 2002, before treatment. Posttreatment measurements were made in August and October 2003 . Results indicate that by August 2003 (posttreatment) the average growth of willows in covered treatment was 25 cm (48%) greater than in noncovered treatments. By October 2003 (posttreatment), more shrubs were browsed in noncovered (84%) than covered (39%) treatments. Our data suggest that covering small willow shrubs (< 2m tall) with felled western juniper is an effective deterrent to browsing (Matney et al 2005).

87. Man-wildlife conflicts:
A case study is presented on the man-wildlife conflicts brought about by the interface of wildlife habitats and a human-use dominated landscape around the Gir Protected Area in Gujarat, India. Information collected from approximately 100 villages around the protected area include; economic status; fuelwood and resource use’ grazing’ mining activities and people’s perceptions. Also included are recommendations on sustainable utilization and management of peripheral forests ;human injured and livestock kills by large fields; minimizing crop damage problems; and conflict zone(Sinha et al 2004).

Summary and Conclusion:
The species causing crop damage include wild boar, porcine, rheus macaque (Macaca mulatta), Hoary-bellied squirrel, barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), red-breasted parakeet (Psittacula alexandri), and wild dog. On average, the worth of damage per ha of crops US$961.82. Methods developed and being used to mitigate man-wildlife conflict include, frightening the animals; guarding the crops; and using some sort of scarecrow and traps (Miah et al 2001).

Primary conflicts included crop raiding, competition between humans and elephants for vegetation, and elephant mortality due to train accidents. Adult males that raided crops had home ranges twice as large as adult males that did not raid crops. Elephants only damaged crop fields that occurred within their home ranges. Field trails of chemical based deterrents and electric fencing should be tried to reduce crop damage. Train speeds need to be reduced to prevent accidental elephant mortality (Williams et al 2001).

Population reduction as a possible component of integrated bird management strategies is useful future research is proposed (Avery et al 2002).

Accurate estimation of crop damage by wildlife often requires labour-intensive sampling procedure. Variable area transect (VAT) sampling has been identified as a potential labour-saving alternative to quadrat sampling ( Engerman et al 2002).

The development of non-agricultural activities on land directly adjacent to forested areas may reduce crop –raiding . (Saj et al 2001).

There is a need for developing policies and management actions that serve the economic interests of local people together with enhancement of environment conservation goal (Maikhuri et al 2001).

Carrot producers should use electric fences or 2.4-m woven wire fences, perhaps combined with staggered canola plantings, to reduce carrot depredations ( Schwab et al 2001).

The colver, rather than fertilized grass, is more effective cover crop on AFAs, against damage by migratory geese. The sward should be managed to encourage clover growth, which would probably involve frequent cutting but no fertilizer. Further research is needed on clover replenishment rate over the winter season and possible benefits of clover leys to other wild life (McKay et al 2001).
Elephants-human conflict decreases the probability of support from local people for conservation efforts. The approaches suggested consist of elephant trenches, electric fences, external support to affected villages, and compensation to villagers for any damage caused (Nyhus et al 2000).

It is, therefore, suggested that 30% open space be used as a basic division for stratifying thickets into low –use and high-use categories for deer density estimation. The proportions of each type could be derived from grid-square measurements of aerial photographs (Latham J 2000).

Because winter wheat represented a reliable and profitable food source even in sever winter, the recent change in Agricultural practice has enhanced the development of a new wintering strategy of pink-footed geese, allowing a northward expansion of their winter range. Potentially, this will increase the crop damage conflict and may lead to further population growth ( Therkidsen et al 2000).

Horned lark damage to lettuce seedlings treated with anthraquinone was greater (p=0.015) than for methiocarb R, 60 versus 20% , respectively, and seedlings in control plots were 100% destroyed. While this level of damage is probably unacceptable to lettuce growers, it should be remembered that the enclosure situation caused an artificially high bird pressure on the crop. Further studies in open fields under a more normal bird pressure are warranted ( York et al 2000).

Incidence and severity of visible foliar ozone injury on cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L.) and crown-bread (Verbesina Occidentalis Walt), were determined

Ozone injury was greatest on the lower leaves for both species sampled with over 95% of the injured leaves occurring on the lower 50% of the plant. This is the first report of foliar ozone injury on these plant species in situ, in the Park, illustrating the great variability in symptom expression with time, and within and between populations ( Chappelka et al 2003).

A grid-based geographical information system (GIS) with a 25km2 resolution utilizing cost-effective data source, combined with simple statistical tools, was capable of identifying spatial predictors of HEC

It is suggested that an integrated, community-based, low technological approach will be the most sustainable solution to this conflict ( Osborn et al 2003).

Blackbirds (lcteridae) annually damage US$5-8 million of ripening sunflower in the northern Great Plains. Baiting blackbirds with avicide-treated rice during spring migration might reduce the regional breeding populations. birds can be successfully baited with avicide-treated rice placed in corn stubble (Linz et al 2003).

Plant debris accumulation is viewed as a key factor determining small mammal abundance and potential damage in low-till agricultural ((Stermer r RT et al 2003). The projected total value of crop yield losses due to wildlife damage for buffer zone villages located in Garhwal Himalaya in about Rs.5 38 620 (US$15 389). Besides food grain, horticultural crops i.e apple, also suffered. Maximum damage.

Major wildlife agents responsible for crop damage were wild board, bear, porcupine, monkey, musk deer and partridge (Chokor). Monkey and wild boar alone accounted for about 50% to 60% of total crop damage in the study village. Goat and sheep are the major livestock killed by leopard. The total value of livestock losses at prevailing market rates is about Rs. 10 24 520 (US$ 29 272) in the study village.

Due to existing conservation policies and laxity in implementation of preventive measures, the problems for local inhabitants are increasing. Potential solutions dicussed emphasize the need to undertake suitable and appropriate protective measures to minimize the crop losses. Change in cropping and crop composition, particularly cultivation of medicinal plants (high value low volume crops), were also suggested. Besides, fair and quick disbursement of compensation for crop loss and livestock killing need to be adopted. Local people of the buffer zone area already have a negative attitude towards park/reserve establishment due to socio-political changes inducing major economic losses and this attitude may lead to clashes and confrontations if proper ameliorative measures are not taken immediately ( Rao et al 2002).

Results for the Ontario field crop producers indicate that the magnitude of the difference between the value of the yield loss and the welfare measure of damage is approximately 50%. This difference indicates that most farmers were willing to tolerate the wildlife damage they experienced (Heigh et al 2001).

Capsaicin, present in most hot sauces and salsas, are responsible for the "hot" sensation in many spicy foods. At high doses, capsaicin cause significant discomfort upon contact with the sensitive tissues of the mouth and throat of mammals. By applying a capsaicin containing paste to the outside of maple tree sap collection, tubing, operators hope to minimize rodent (primarily red squirrel, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) gnawing damage to the tubing.

Capsaicins in the sap were then quantified by high performance liquid chromatography/fluorescence detection. Results indicate that polyethylene tubing was more resistant to capsaicins migration than was polyvinyl tubing. While capsaicins were detected in the sap, the perfected levels in syrup would be below the human taste threshold (Johnston et al 2002).

Wildlife management in Australia with crop losses by rabbits and foxes is discussed (Kidd 2002).

Rice fields are preferred feeding areas of mallard, Anas platyrhynchos, in central Portugal. Rice consumption by mallards prior to crop harvest causes conflicts between farmers and waterfowl managers.

Point counts were performed to estimate the numbers of mallards using the area. The diet included rice seeds (51.2% dry matter), weed seeds of rice fields (23.6%, dry matter), and animal matter (25,1% dry matter). By means of the diet composition, we calculated that each mallard needed to ingest 93.4 g (dry matter) of food daily including 47.8 g of rice, to meet its energy requirements. The estimated mallard population using the area was 1600 ducks. They consumed approximately 0.2% of the 4000 kg/ha minimum rice production. Therefore, the decrease in rice production caused by mallard was insignificant, which suggests that the existence of mallards on rice fields is compatible with rice production (Rodrigues et al 2002).

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Damage by Wild Animals to Agrarian Economy
G.M. Wani
Ph.D ; D.V.M (Germany)
FN ISSGAPU, FN DAAD
Director Extension Education / SAMETI
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir
Shalimar, Srinagar, 19112.

P.O.Box: 461, GPO, Srinagar, E.Mail: Wanimohyuddin@yahoo.com
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