Reproductive Health Management of Mammals

Abstract

Majority of world’s goats live in Asia and Africa. Developing & poor economies have more goats sustaining their poorest of poor. This paper reviews the incidence of reproductive diseases in Africa (Nigeria) Europe (Cyprus) and India. Most common diseases inflicting reproductive losses are abortions, pregnancy toxaimia, milk fever in African sheep, having an incidence of 37, 25 & 25% respectively. The incidences of Dystocia, abortions, milk fever and Mastitis in goats under similar conditions range from 10-49%. Brucellosis is less common in sheep and goats than cattle. Chlamydia, leptospirosis, fever, rift valley fever, salmonella, toxoplasmosis, campylobacteriosis, bluetongue, viral border disease of new born lambs, white muscle disease are some of the common reproductive diseases inflicting economic losses to sheep and goat rearers. Some of the diseases have zoonotic importance too. Therefore, proper reproductive health management is "Key" to successful sheep and goat enterprise.

Better reproductive healthy management through proper sanitation, adequate feeding, preventive vaccination and seniotive diagnostic applications reduced some of the above disease incidences in Cyprus. The significant reduction in enzootic abortions. Blue tongue hydatidosis, brucellosis, and Q fever was recorded. Many reproductive deformities like foetal dystocia, foetal mummifications, foetal macerations, hydroallontois and hydroammions observed by author in J&K are reported with factual images. Some of the case histories reported from Rajasthan are also incorporated wherever necessary.

In order to reduce reproductive losses in sheep and goats, proper reproductive health management schedules need to be advocated. They can be divided into three categories.

1. Congenital defects like intersex and other genetic defects could be reduced by avoiding inbreeding and proper testing and selection of breeding rams and bucks.

2. Nutritional deformities could be reduced by applying supplementation schedules during breeding and pregnancy. The neonatal care and post-parturient management needs attention.

3. Hygienic and zoo-sanitation measures shall envisage proper examination of sires at breeding, disease prevention through vaccinations and hygiene. Easy pregnancy diagnosis using ultrosonography for pre-diagnosis of any foetal or pregnancy abnormalities like foetal death, amphisema, mummification, maceration etc.

Introduction

Reproduction in important for the survival of all be it humans or animals. No life without wife although a common solagan for human is true for all life on this Universe, be it insect or Elephant. The holy "Quran" says God created every living entity on earth in pairs. Thus reproductive management in general and reproductive health management is essential for conservat5ion, propagation and sustenance of life on earth. Sheep and goats have an early domestication history. Domestic sheep (Ovis aries), order Artiodactyla and family Bovidae have been derived from ovis musimon, a species distributed across Mediterranean islands. Their domestication began some 10,000 years ago. Longevity differs among breeds but maximum life span is 19-20 years. Keisler (1999) in encyclopedia of Reproduction has given broadly reviewed global reproductive parameters of sheep and goats. The reader is also referred to review on sheep and goat production in general and goat management system in Encyclopedia of Dairy sciences, published by Academic Press. U.K in 2003 (Wani, 2003). Immunological aspects of sheep and goat health in general have been reviewed and depicted as html on http:/medicihne.ucsd.edu/cpa/sheep.html.2003.

Sheep and goats harbor Chlamydia psittaci and weak and dead foeti are born or aborted. Various diseases affecting reproductive health or sheep & goats have been reviewed (Smith et al, 1972). Various physiological data on sheep has been used to study human prenatal development. Many studies of value to control and cure reproductive losses in human were studied on sheep models. Like regulation of amniotic fluid in sheep suggested that (VEGF) vascular endothelial growth factor increases intramembranous abortion and micro vesicular transport. Similarly, technetium crossed ovine placenta more rapidly than smaller sodium ions. (Daneshmand et al 2003; Gilbert et al, 1996). These and other studies have revolutionized the health care of human and animal especially related to reproductive disease diagnosis and management.

The above short description and brief review envisages the importance of the topic under discussion. In order to reduce reproductive losses, disease, nutrition and breeding management schedules are to be advocated. It may need summing up information and methodology of clinical examination of reproductive organs, a checklist of physical signs of diseases associated with genital system. Besides clinical examination of goats their abnormalities needed to be discussed and imagined. For proper strategies of reproductive health management we need information on:

Incidence of reproductive disease and disorders. Diagnostic features of reproductive disorders. Management tools for prevention and cure of these diseases. This paper intends to review the data available on the topic and discussed it in the light of our own limited observations and profess a reproductive health management schedule from lamb/ kid born to lamb-kid born from her. Seed to seed plant or offspring to offspring cycle.

Broad Review of facts

i. Common Reproductive Diseases.

In Nov, 2006, a book detailing common reproductive diseases and disorders has been published by Saunders, edited by youngquist and Walter on ovine and caprine theriogenology. The common diseases listed are abortions, dystocia, listeriosis, mastitis, pregnancy toxemia, vaginal prolapse, ring womb, uterine prolapse, vibriosis (compylo bacteriosis), white muscle disease, toxoplasmosis, cache valley virus, Chlamydia, leptospirosis, Q fever, rift valley fever, salmonellosis, metritis, peritonitis, blue tongue, Fuzz lamb syndrome (Border lamb disease), foetal mummification, foetal macerations, cystic ovaries, persistant corpus luteum, trichomoniasis. We have also observed and reported Haenatic of foetal mummification in an ewe at CIRG, Makhdoom, first report of its kind in India (Wani et al, 1980) and a case of schitoschoma reflexus in an ewe at Srinagar. Sheep Breeding Farm, SKUAST (Wani et al 2000). Besides a number of reports on reproductive diseases of sheep & goat from CIRG, CSWRI and other SAU have been reported and presented in various health related seminars or ISSGAPU in 1981, 1982, 1987, 1991, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006 and published in their proceedings respectively.

ii. Incidence of reproductive diseases.

A. (Europe) Brucellosis in Sheep & Goats has less occurrence than cattle in Europe (Cyprus). Its incidence is 0.0005% to 0.013% only. The engootic abortions, Q fever incidence in affected flocks were over 40%. The incidence of Hydatidosis in sheep was 0.79% but in goats it was negligible 0.09%, so one could profess goat meat safer than sheep, so far as hydatidosis as zoonotic disease is concerned. Blue tongue, toxoplasmosis incidence vary from 5-11% in sheep & Goats (Polydorou 1983). Chlamydia in sheep 11% and goat 9% is less than cattle (24%). Campylobacteriosis has an incidence of 1.2% in both sheep & Goats. Coxiella burnetic infections are 3 & 6% in sheep & Goats respectively. Toxoplasmosis is higher in sheep 23% than goats 7%, may be because of their clean and selective feeding habits. Listeria monocytogenes infection was very low in sheep (0.7%) than goats (2.2%) or cattle (4.6%). Brucellosis has host preference for cattle but sheep and goats too can harbour the infection (Luchsinger & Anderson, 1979).

B. (America) Blue Tongue was first reported from USA in 1948 in taxas sheep. Now virus has been detected in its 18 states. Initially its morbidity was 50-70% and mortality 20-50%. Subsequently with proper reproductive health measures its incidence has its incidence has been greatly reduced to minimal 1-2%. Cattle are the virus reservoirs. Culicoides is insect vector. Virus has been isolated from sheep kids (Melophagus ovinus ) and cattle lice (Haematopinus eurysternus Denny) . Dairy goats or Angora goats do not habour nutural Blue tongue. Vaccines have been produced to reduce its incidences. (Hourrigan and Klingsporn, 1975). Bluetongue can spread through winds as reported in cyprus (Pitzolis, 1987).

C. Global: Blue tongue occurance is traced to Europe, 125 years ago. It spread to all most all countries globally, through distribution and sale of European animals to Africa, Asia & Other countries. Blue tongue is spread by a biting gnats or midges, genus culicoides. (Walton, 2004). Caprine arthritis-encephalitis is seen often in new born kids but not before birth. The disease symptoms are similar to Visna in sheep, where Leuksencephalomyelitis occurs. (Adams & Crawford, 1980). DNA technology using 2 PCR tests for diagnosis of Paratuberculosis in goats was reported from Germany (Schroeder et al 2001). Flow cytometery using monoclonal antibody detector was used for diagnosis of paratuberculosis in Czech goats. (Faldyna et al, 1999). Toxoplasmosis in goats was reported from Malaysis. The incidence was 35% in affected herds incidence was higher 50% in small farms, Selanger and lowest (20%) in Melaka & Negri Sembilan farms. Incidence was more in Malay farmer flocks 40% than Chinese run farms 20%. No infection was detected in large commercial farms. (Dorry et al, 1993). A steering group on evolving national Livestock policy perspective in their report of 1996, describe, Blue tongue, Brucellosis, Chlamydia, Maedi-visna disease, (Sheep), mastitis affecting small ruminants, besides other diseases like John’s disease goat pox, sheep pox, enterotoxaemia, foot and mouth disease, PPR, Rinder pest & pneumonia. On the basis of above facts a considerable economic loss is inflicted on national and international livestock economic through reproductive diseases. Therefore, it is very important to draw reproductive health management schedules to reduce the loss. In this regard we shall devote our attention in next few pages under following different heads:

1. Examination Methodology

Unless our vets, NGO, scientists and those working with sheep & goats are conversant with methods of detecting deformities it is difficult to identify and cure than. Thus examination of external and internal genital organs shall be discussed and demonstrated through slides and figures.

2. Investigative technology

The technique used for clinical diagnosis of reproductive diseases and deformities shall be shown in slides under presentation and shall be discussed through figures and charts.

3. Projective Strategies

Reproductive health checklist shall be discussed to help farmers, NGO & others to operate efficient reproductive health management.

Examination Methodology:

i. Male External genitalia

Examination is performed under standing conditions. Visual and palpation of scrotum, spermatic cord may be made. Size, texture may hint towards abnormalities prolapse of intestine, presence of hernia or inguinal ring or ruptures may be looked for. Testes should be symmetrical, mobile, having an consistency like a ripe tomato. The total scrotal diameter in an adult Ram or back should be around 33 cms. Enlarged, painful or hard testicles indicate disease and thus need further laboratory investigation. Such Rams or bucks should be immediately isolated and not used for breeding till clearance from diagnostic examination.

Testicular atrophy & hernia may be indicated on examination physically or through ultrasonography. Infections epididimytis can be detected as enlarged epididymitis similarly asmetrical spermatic cords are on disease indication scars on scrotum detect casectomized ram and bucks. Examination of penis and prepuce in necessary. The method of its examination is shown in figs. Inflammation or ulceration may be seen. Many disease like Pizzle rot need to be scored oat by seminal and blood examinations. (Jackson and cockroft, 2002).

ii. Female genital Tract

The examinaktion of udder, vulva, vagina and cervix becomes necessary. The method of examining udder is shown in Figs. Mastitis, gangrene, prolapse or vaginal secretion may reveal various disease conditions. Small necrotic plaques on vaginal wall be examined through head light and speculum. Locomotor problems of limbs and feet, lamness, nevous movements may reveal many diseases like border disease tremors in young lambs, paresis due to spinal cord abscess in 3 month old lambs, circling, head tilt conditions due to coenuriasis in 3month to 2 years age sheep and goat. Adult sheep nervous conditions include cervical subluxation (Paresis ) as in listeriosis, brain abscess and scrapid (ataxia, pruritus, loss of weight). Metabolic disease include recumbancy, dullness and head pressing in pregnancy toxaemia, weakness, recombency and Haccid paralysis in hypocalcaemes, hyperasthesis, staggers in hypomognesaemia and kangaroo gait (ataxia).

Similarly intersexes in goats could be diagnosed by external examination of female genitalia, as shown in fig. Similarly pseudopregnancy and other genital tract defects or deformities could be detected via ultrasonography or hormonal, biochemical examination too. Radiograph or detection of estrone sulphate and progesterone in blood, milk may indicate pregnancy (wani, 1989). Similarly examination of vaginal discharge, cervix could help us to detect retained placenta, necrotic vaginitis. Acute or septic metritis, endometritis, chronic vaginitis, vaginal cysts or other deformities. Various shapes and sizes of these reproductive disorders, abnormalities will be presented as slides 1-29. Various lamb mortality in exotic sheep has been documented with managemental too for reduction (Suden et al, 1990)

Investigative Technology

a. Use of ultrasonography, laparoscopy and radiation tools have been used to explore reproductive diseases and disorders. Since their first use in India around 1978-82 (Wani, 1981, 1982) many groups have now emerged. Even our pioneering work at Makhdoom has been rated as pioneering, first of its kind by British & American Journal reviews notably theriogenology (1988) and 2002 website www.googli.com 21 years of ultrasound use. Now its use has been popularized and almost all veterinary college of India use it for research purpose. It is now time to conduct few diagnostic summer or winter school on it, so as to train atleast 10-20 veterinarian in each state for its use under farm conditions. Their use even in pre-slaughter animals may save economic resources and loss of lambs. We used many investigative technologies for small ruminants. Bachoo & Wani, 1991; Sudan et al, 1990; wani, 1981, 82; Wani et al, 1998 ; Wani & Bachoo, 1990. Wani & Bachoo, 1993, 1991; Wani, 1989.

b. Radio Immunoassays

This technology use have predicted pregnancy in goats, sheep by blood, milk examinations. Its use for diagnosis of foetal abnormalities needs to be explored. In collaboration with ultra-sonography, hormone, estrogen/ progesterone values may help to diagnose foetal deformities, ovarian disorders or even placental defects. However, this technology has to be remodeled and a new area of clinical diagnostics in reproduction is on the walls in future. More landmarks as normal values during early, mid or late pregnancy images have to be corborated. Foetal dimensions, placements and growth factor study should be multiplied. The lone experiments at vety. College, Srinagar (Mufti et al, 2000) he fortified in all veterinary colleges as was done in ultrasonography. Various details of the internal structures of genitalia have been depicted by wani et al, 2006 a,b,c, 2007. For further use ahnd standardization of foeto-maternal interactions various articles of the author are available free of cost on www.wanigm.net or www.word-mart.com. Even clicking WANI.G.M on www.Googli.com search engine shall make available all these paper to the interested readers. (Wani, 1989; Sharief 1996).

Prospective strategies

i. Even USA, national Academy has given green light for intensive study of small ruminant research on reproduction, which may serve as fertility control models in human too. Thus more funds and emphasis in research on basic, strategic and applied aspects is to be given in India too.

ii. An examination and investigative schedule for breeding rams needs to be formulated into a regulation. An organization as per Indian standard Institution needs to be established, which shall take all measures to safeguard our stock from emerging diseases through imports under WTO and others. Massive breeding ram investigations need to be advocated. Similarly, female before breeding or at culling need to be singled out.

iii. Common recommendations on the topic.

a. Sheep and goat enterprise needs encouragement and adequate funds for establishing reproductive disease diagnostic centers at state / regional levels immediately. The emphasis on zoo-sanitation arising under WTO & import/ export restrictions needs these technical improvements. These labs could be located in veterinary colleges for survey and identification of these diseases. Use of advance techniques needs priority.

b. Clinical aspects of Veterinary institutes including IVRI, NDRI, CSWRI or CIRG are poorly developed. ICAR should not forget that these institutions have public health importance. Their care and facilities should be of referral institutes like AIIMSW or other national or state Medical college. Even American NAS have now laid many emphasis on renewal of clinical diagnostic in small ruminant reproduction.
c. Feeding mechanization, using cheap and easily available field staffs for sheep and goat wholesome and balanced feeds needs to be tested and used.

d. A proper identification of the sheep and goat resources needs to be made using DNA finger printing and selection of our best breed semen, embryo needs propagation. It is prelude to seed our whole sheep & Goat population free of all diseases especially sexually transmitted diseases. A proper diagnostic checks are necessary for all imports or exports of semen or Embryos.

e. The excellent facilities at CSWRI & CIRG need to be utilized as referral clinical diagnostic hospitals as in America, Europe and especially Germany. A sheep and goat clinic needs to be established in each SAU to serve as referral clinical at state level white as CIRG & CSWRI* should act as National referral institutes for Goat and sheep respectively at par with IVRI which looks after large animals.

f. The global importance of sheep and goat meat being comparatively free of major zoonotic diseases threats needs moe emphasis on health, reproduction, physiology, nutrition, meat technology and extension of these technologies to poorer of the poor in this field. It is high time to re-organize these two species –specific institutes at par with IVRI & NDRI as deemed University as they are already serving as national institutes for sheep and goats.

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Reproductive Health Management in Sheep & Goats
*G.M. Wani
S.K. University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Kashmir
Post Box 461, GPO, Srinagar – 190001.

Mailing address: E.mail: Wanimohyuddin@yahoo.com
Cell : 09419095342
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