America's Tyrant

Manuel Noriega was a useful tool to the US for many years despite his unsavory reputation as a drug trafficker and accusations of torture and murder of political opponents.

The Panamanian strongman helped the US supply arms to the Contras during the Reagan administration's clandestine support of the rebels against the Sandinista government of Nicaragua. Always willing to play both sides, Noriega also sold arms he was receiving from Cuba to leftist guerrillas in El Salvador.

It was not for nothing that Omar Torrijos, a colonel who seized power in Panama with a coup in 1968, once said of Noriega: "This is my gangster." Following Torrijos's death in 1981 in a mysterious plane crash, Noriega became the power behind the throne in Panama, and as military ruler was able to put his choices into the president's office.

But his dictatorial tendencies - the suspension of constitutional rights, the crackdown on the media and the exiling of political enemies - along with his tolerance of drug trafficking and money laundering made him a growing embarrassment to his former patrons in the US.

In 1987 the US senate called for the removal of Noriega, who retaliated by removing police protection from the US embassy, which was promptly attacked by pro-Noriega goons.

In 1989 Noriega provoked American ire when he declared an election null and void when his pick, Carlos Duque, was about to be defeated by Guillermo Endara, who was backed by George Bush Sr. When the opposition held protests, Endara and a vice-presidential candidate, Guillermo Ford, were severely beaten.

Bush decided it was time for regime change. The pretext came when US soldiers were fired upon as they passed Panama's military headquarters. The US launched a full-scale invasion in December 1989 involving 24,000 troops.

Noriega took refuge in the Vatican embassy in Panama City, where US forces played loud rock music to try and force him out since an attack would have violated diplomatic conventions.

He finally surrendered in January 1990 and eventually stood trial in Miami. There were accusations that the charges were inflated, but he was convicted in 1992 of cocaine trafficking, racketeering and money laundering.

Noriega was sentenced to 40 years' jail and ordered to pay $44m (£22m) to the Panamanian government.